SA.NTA  R03A. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


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HYGIENIC  PHYSIOLOGY, 


WITH     SPECIAL     REFERENCE     TO     THE     USE     OF 


ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS  AND  NARCOTICS. 


ADAPTED      FROM      THE 


FOURTEEN      WEEKS      IN      HUMAN      PHYSIOLOGY," 

BY 

JOEL    DORMAN    STEELE,    PH.D. 


Edited  and  Endorsed  for  the  use  of  Schools  (in  accordance  with  the  recent 
Legislation  upon  this  subject )  by  the  Department  of  Scientific  Temper- 
ance Instruction  of  the  W.  C.  T.  U.  of  tJie  United  States, 
under  the  direction  of  Mrs.  Mary  H.  Hunt,  Supt. 


A.     S.     BARNES     &    COMPANY, 

NEW    YORK    AND    CHICAGO. 


BIOLOGY 

THE     FOURTEEN-WEEKS     SERIES 


NATURAL       SCIENCE, 

BY 

J.  DORMAN    STEELE,  PH.D.,  F.G.S. 

New   Physics. 

New  Chemistry. 

New   Descriptive  Astronomy. 
Popular  Geology. 

Human   Ph)siology. 
Zoology. 

Botany. 

A  Key,  containing  Answers  to  the  Questions  and  Problems  in  Steele's 
14-  Weeks  Series. 

3  3  U. 


AN    HISTORICAL    SERIES, 

ON   THE  PLAN  OF   STEELE'S   I4-WEEKS  IN   THE   SCIENCES. 

A  Brief  History  of  the   United   States. 

A  Brief  History  of  France. 

A  Brief  History  of  Ancient   Peoples. 

A   Brief  History  of  Mediaeval   and   Modern   Peoples. 

A   Brief  General    History. 

A  Br'ef  History  of  Greece. 

A  Bref  History  of  England.     (In  preparation.) 

A   Popular  History  of  the   United   States. 


Copyright,  1884,  bv  A.  S.  BARNES  &  CO. 


PREFACE. 


THE  term  Physiology,  or  the  science  of  the 
functions  of  the  body,  has  come  to  include 
Anatomy,  or  the  science  of  its  structure,  and 
Hygiene,  or  the  laws  of  health;  the  one  being 
essential  to  the  proper  understanding  of  physiol- 
ogy, and  the  other  being  its  practical  application 
to  life.  The  three  are  intimately  blended,  and  in 
treating  of  the  different  subjects  the  author  has 
drawn  no  line  of  distinction  where  nature  has 
made  none.  This  work  is  not  prepared  for  the  use 
of  medical  students,  but  for  the  instruction  of  youth 
in  the  principles  which  underlie  the  preservation  of 
health  and  the  formation  of  correct  physical  habits. 
All  else  is  made  subservient  to  this  practical  knowl- 
edge. A  simple  scientific  dress  is  used  which,  while 
conducing  to  clearness,  also  gratifies  that  general 
desire  of  children  to  know  something  of  the  nomen- 
clature of  any  study  they  pursue. 


VI  PREFACE. 

To  the  description  of  each  organ  is  appended  an 
account  of  its  most  common  diseases,  accidents, 
etc.,  and,  when  practicable,  their  mode  of  treat- 
ment. A  pupil  may  thus  learn,  for  example,  the 
cause  and  cure  of  a  cold,  the  management  of  a 
wound,  or  the  nature  of  an  inflammation. 

The  Practical  Questions,  which  have  been  a  prom- 
inent feature  of  the  series,  will  be  found,  it  is  hoped, 
equally  useful  in  this  work.  Directions  for  prepar- 
ing simple  microscopic  objects,  and  illustrations  of 
the  different  organs,  are  given  under  each  subject. 

In  the  Appendix  will  be  found  Questions  for  class 
use,  Hints  about  the  sick-room,  Suggestions  as  to 
what  to  do  "till  the  doctor  comes,"  Antidotes  for 
poisons,  and  a  full  Index. 

Believing  in  a  Divine  Architect  of  the  human 
form,  the  author  cannot  refrain  from  occasionally 
pointing  out  His  inimitable  workmanship,  and  im- 
pressing the  lesson  of  a  Great  Final  Cause. 

The  author  has  gleaned  from  every  field,  at  home 
and  abroad,  to  secure  that  which  would  interest  and 
profit  his  pupils.  In  general,  Flint's  great  work  on 
the  Physiology  of  Man,  an  undisputed  authority  on 
both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  has  been  adopted  as  the 
standard  in  digestion,  respiration,  circulation,  and 
the  nervous  system.  Leidy's  Human  Anatomy,  and 
Sappey's  Traite  d'Anatomie  have  been  followed  on 
all  anatomical  questions,  and  have  furnished  many 
beautiful  drawings.  Huxley's  Physiology  has  af- 


PREFACE.  Vll 

forded  exceedingly  valuable  aid.  Foster's  Text- 
Book  of  Physiology,  Hin ton's  delightful  work  on 
Health  and  its  Conditions,  Black's  valuable  Ten 
Laws  of  Health,  Williams's  practical  essay  on  Our 
Eyes  and  How  to  Use  them,  Le  Pileur's  charming 
treatise  on  The  Wonders  of  the  Human  Body,  and 
that  quaint  volume,  Odd  Hours  of  a  Physician,  have 
aided  the  author  with  facts  and  fancies.  The  writ- 
ings of  Draper,  Dalton,  Carpenter,  Valentine,  Ma- 
pother,  Watson,  Lankester,  Letheby,  Hall,  Hamil- 
ton, Bell,  Wilson,  Bower,  Cutter,  Hutchison,  Wood, 
Bigelow,  Stille,  Holmes,  Beigel  and  others  have  been 
freely  consulted. 


PUBLISHERS'     NOTE. 


An  ABRIDGED  EDITION"  of  this  work  is  published  to 
afford  a  cheaper  manual— adapted  to  Junior  Classes  and  Com- 
mon Schools.  The  abridgment  contains  the  essence  of  this 
text,  nearly  all  its  illustrations,  and  the  whole  of  the  Tem- 
perance matter  as  here  presented. 

Order  "  Hygienic   Physiology,   Abridged." 


READING     REFERENCES. 


FOSTER'S  Text  book  of  Physiology.— Leidy's  Human  Anatomy.— Draper's  Human 
Physiology.  — Dalton's  Physiology  and  Hygiene. — Cutter's  Physiology. — Johnston 
&  Church's  Chemistry  of  Common  Life. — Letheby's  Food. — Tyndall  on  Light,  and 
on  Sound. — Flint's  Physiology  of  Man. — Rosenthal's  Physiology  of  the  Muscles  and 
Nerves.— Bernstein's  Five  Senses  of  Man.— Huxley  &  Youmans's  Physiology  & 
Hygiene.— Sappey's  Trait j  d' Anatomic. — Luys's  Brain  and  its  Functions. — Smith's 
Foods.— Bain's  Mind  and  Body.— Pettigrew's  Animal  Locomotion.  —  Carpenter's 
Mental  Physiology.— Wilder  and  Gage's  Anatomy.— Jarvis's  Physiology  and  Laws 
of  Health. 

Hargreave's  Alcohol  and  Science. — Richardson's  Ten  Lectures  on  Alcohol,  and 
Diseases  of  Modern  Life.— Brown's  Alcohol.— Davis's  Intemperance  and  Crime.— 
Pitman's  Alcohol  and  the  State.— Anti-Tobacco.— Howie's  Stimulants  and  Narcotics. 
—Hunt's  Alcohol  as  Food  or  Medicine.— Schiitzenberger's  Fermentation.— Hub- 
bard's  Opium  Habit  and  Alcoholism. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 


SEEING  is  believing,  —  more  than  that,  it  is 
often  knowing  and  remembering.  The  mere 
reading  of  a  statement  is  of  little  value  compared 
with  the  observation  of  a  fact.  Every  opportunity 
should  therefore  be  taken  of  exhibiting  to  the  pupil 
the  phenomena  described,  and  thus  making  them 
real.  A  microscope  is  so  essential  to  the  under- 
standing of  many  subjects,  that  it  is  indispensable 
to  the  proper  teaching  of  Physiology.  A  suitable 
instrument  and  carefully  prepared  specimens  show- 
ing the  structure  of  the  bones,  the  skin,  and  the 
blood  of  various  animals,  the  pigment  cells  of  the 
eye,  etc.,  may  be  obtained  at  a  small  cost  from  the 
Publishers  of  this  book. 

On  naming  the  subject  of  a  paragraph,  the  pupil 
should  be  prepared  to  tell  all  he  knows  about  it. 
No  failure  should  discourage  the  teacher  in  estab- 
lishing this  mode  of  study  and  recitation.  A  little 
practice  will  produce  the  most  satisfactory  results. 


X  SUGGESTIONS    TO    TEACHERS. 

The  unexpected  question  and  the  apt  reply  develop 
a  certain  sharpness  and  readiness  which  are  worthy 
of  cultivation.  The  questions  for  review,  or  any 
others  that  the  wit  of  the  teacher  may  suggest,  can 
be  effectively  used  to  break  the  monotony  of  a 
topical  recitation,  thereby  securing  the  benefits  of 
both  systems. 

The  pupil  should  expect  to  be  questioned  each  day 
upon  any  subject  passed  over  during  the  term,  and 
thus  the  entire  knowledge  gained  will  be  within  his 
grasp  for  instant  use.  While  some  are  reciting  to 
the  teacher,  let  others  write  on  slates  or  on  the 
blackboard.  At  the  close  of  the  recitation  let  all 
criticise  the  ideas,  the  spelling,  the  use  of  capitals, 
the  pronunciation,  the  grammar,  and  the  mode  of 
expression.  Greater  accuracy  and  much  collateral 
drill  may  thus  be  secured  at  little  expense  of  valu- 
able school-time. 

The  Introduction  is  designed  merely  to  furnish 
suggestive  material  for  the  first  lesson,  preparatory 
to  beginning  the  study.  Other  topics  may  be  found 
in  the  questions  given  in  the  Appendix.  In  this 
same  connection  read  also  the  Conclusion. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

IN  TROD  UCTION ,       1 

I. 
THE    SKELE  TON 5 

I  I. 
THE    MUSCLES 25 

III. 
THE    SKIN 47 

I  V. 
RESPIRATION   AND    THE    VOICE 71 

V. 
THE    CIR CULA  TLON 99 

VI. 
DIGESTION   AND   FOOD  137 

VII. 
THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.,  .  175 


Xll  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 

VIII. 

PAGE 

THE    SPECIAL    SENSES. 209 

1.  TOUCH. 209 

2.  TASTE 213 

3.  SMELL 214 

4.  HEARING 216 

5.  SIGHT. 219 

I  X. 
CONCL  USION 231 

X. 
APPENDIX 235 

x.  HINTS  ABOUT    TH2   SICK-ROOM 237 

2.  DISINFECTANTS.  • 238 

3.  WHAT    TO   DO    "TILL    THE   DOCTOR    COMES" 238 

4.  ANT/DOTES    TO   POISONS 244 

5.  QUESTIONS   FOR    CLASS    USE 246 

6.  GLOSSARY 265 

7.  INDEX 271 


INTRODUCTION. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  STUDY  in  youth  is  of  in- 
estimable value.  Precious  lives  are  frequently 
lost  through  ignorance.  Thousands  squander 
in  early  years  the  strength  which  should  have  been  kept 
for  the  work  of  real  life.  Habits  are  often  formed  in 
youth  which  entail  weakness  and  poverty  upon  manhood, 
and  are  a  cause  of  life-long  regret.  The  use  of  a  strained 
limb  may  permanently  damage  it.  Some  silly  feat  of 
strength  may  produce  an  irreparable  injury.  A  thought- 
less hour  of  reading  by  twilight  may  impair  the  sight  for 
life.  A  terrible  accident  may  happen,  and  a  dear  friend 
perish  before  our  eyes,  while  we  stand  by  powerless  to 
render  the  assistance  we  could  so  easily  give  did  we  "only 
know  what  to  do."  The  thousand  little  hints  which  may 
save  or  lengthen  life,  may  repel  or  abate  disease,  and  the 
simple  laws  which  regulate  our  bodily  vigor,  should  be  so 
familiar  that  we  may  be  quick  to  apply  them  in  an  emer- 
gency. The  preservation  of  health  is  easier  than  the  cure 
of  disease.  .Childhood  cannot  afford  to  wait  for  the  les- 
son of  experience  which  is  learned  only  when  the  penalty 
of  violated  law  has  been  already  incurred,  and  health 
irrevocably  lost. 

Nature's  Laws  Inviolable.  —  In  infancy,  we  learn 
how  terribly  Nature  punishes  a  violation  of  certain  laws, 
and  how  promptly  she  applies  the  penalty.  We  soon  find 
out  the  peril  of  fire,  falls,  edged-tools,  and  the  like.  We 
fail,  however,  to  notice  the  equally  sharp  and  certain 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

punishments  which  bad  habits  entail.  We  are  quick  to 
feel  the  need  of  food,  but  not  so  ready  to  perceive  the 
danger  of  an  excess.  A  lack  of  air  drives  us  at  once  to 
secure  a  supply ;  but  foul  air  is  as  fatal,  yet  gives  us  no 
warning. 

Nature  provides  a  little  training  for  us  at  the  outset  of 
Me,  but  leaves  the  most  for  us  to  learn  by  bitter  expe- 
rience. So  in  youth  we  throw  away  our  strength  as  if  it 
were  a  burden  of  which  we  desired  to  be  rid.  We  eat 
anything,  and  at  any  time  ;  do  anything  we  please,  and 
sit  up  any  number  of  nights  with  little  or  no  sleep.  Be- 
cause we  feel  only  a  momentary  discomfort  from  these 
physical  sins,  we  fondly  imagine  when  that  is  gone  we  are 
all  right  again.  Our  drafts  upon  our  constitution  are 
promptly  paid,  and  we  expect  this  will  always  be  the  case; 
but  some  day  they  will  come  back  to  us  protested;  Nature 
will  refuse  to  meet  our  demands,  and  we  shall  find  our- 
selves physical  bankrupts. 

We  are  furnished  in  the  beginning  with  a  certain  vital 
force  upon  which  we  may  draw.  We  can  be  spendthrifts 
and  waste  it  in  youth,  or  be  wise  and  so  husband  it  to 
manhood.  Our  shortcomings  are  all  charged  against  this 
stock.  Nature's  memory  never  fails :  she  keeps  her  ac- 
count with  perfect  exactness.  Every  physical  sin  sub- 
tracts from  the  sum  and  strength  of  our  years.  We  may 
cure  a  disease,  but  it  never  leaves  us  as  it  found  us.  We 
may  heal  a  wound,  but  the  scar  still  shows.  We  reap  as 
we  sow,  and  we  may  either  gather  in  the  thorns,  one  by 
one,  to  torment  and  destroy,  or  rejoice  in  the  happy  bar- 
vest  of  a  hale  old  age. 


THE    SKELETON. 


I.  FORM,  STRUCTURE,  ETC.,  OF  THE  BONES. 

ripHE  Skeleton,  or  framework  of  the  "  House  we 
JL  live  in,"  is  composed  of  about  200  bones.* 

Uses  and  Forms  of  the  Bones. — They  have  three 
principal  uses  :  1.  To  protect  the  delicate  organs ;  f 
2.  To  serve  as  levers  on  which  the  muscles  may  act 
to  produce  motion ;  and  3.  To  preserve  the  shape  of 
the  body. 

Bones  differ  in  form  according  to  the  uses  they 
subserve.  For  convenience  in  walking,  some  are 
long  •  for  strength  and  compactness,  some  are  short 
and  thick ;  for  covering  a  cavity,  some  are  flat ;  and 
for  special  purposes,  some  are  irregular.  The  gen- 
eral form  is  such  as  to  combine  strength  and  light- 
ness. For  example,  all  the  long  bones  of  the  limbs 
are  round  and  hollow,  thus  giving  with  the  same 

*  The  precise  number  varies  in  different  periods  of  life.  Several  which  are  sep- 
arated in  youth  become  united  in  old  age.  Thus  five  of  the  tl  false  vertebrae."  at  the 
base  of  the  spine  early  join  in  one  great  bone— the  sacrum  ;  while  four  tiny  ones 
below  it  often  run  into  a  bony  mass— the  coccyx  (Fig.  6) ;  in  the  child,  the  sternum 
is  composed  of  eight  pieces,  while  in  the  adult  it  consists  of  only  three.  While, 
however,  the  number  of  the  bones  is  uncertain,  their  relative  length  is  so  exact  that 
the  length  of  the  entire  skeleton,  and  thence  the  height  of  the  man,  can  be  obtained 
by  measuring  a  single  one  of  the  principal  bones.  Fossil  bones  and  those  found  at 
Pompeii  have  the  same  proportion  as  our  own. 

t  An  organ  is  a  portion  of  the  body  designed  for  a  particular  use,  called  its  func- 
tion. Thus  the  heart  circulates  the  blood ;  the  liver  produces  the  bile. 


6  THE  SKELETON. 

weight  a  greater  strength,*  and  also  a  larger  surface 
for  the  attachment  of  the  muscles. 

The  Composition  of  the  Bones  at  maturity  is 
about  one  part  animal  to  two  parts  mineral  matter. 
The  proportion  varies  with  the  age.  In  youth  it  is 
nearly  half  and  half,  while  in  old  age  the  mineral  is 
greatly  in  excess.  By  soaking  a  bone  in  weak  muri- 
atic acid,  and  thus  dissolving  the  mineral  matter,  its 
shape  will  not  change,  but  its  stiffness  will  disap- 
pear, leaving  a  tough,  gristly  substance f  (cartilage), 
which  can  be  bent  like  rubber. 

If  the  bone  be  burned  in  the  fire,  thus  consuming 
the  animal  matter,  the  shape  will  still  be  the  same, 
but  it  will  have  lost  its  tenacity,  and  the  beautiful, 
pure-white  residue!  may  be  crumbled  into  powder 
with  the  fingers. 

We  thus  see  that  a  bone  receives  hardness  and 
rigidity  from  its  mineral,  and  tenacity  and  elastic- 
ity from  its  animal  matter. 

*  Cut  a  Bheet  of  foolscap  in  two  pieces.  Roll  one-half  into  a  compact  cylinder, 
and  fold  the  other  into  a  close,  flat  strip ;  support  the  ends  of  each,  and  hang 
weights  in  the  middle  until  they  bend.  The  superior  strength  of  the  roll  will  aston- 
ish one  unfamiliar  with  this  mechanical  principle.  In  a  rod,  the  particles  break  in 
succession,  first  those  on  the  outside,  and  later  those  in  the  center.  In  a  tube,  the 
particles  are  all  arranged  where  they  resist  the  first  strain.  Iron  pillars  are  there- 
fore cast  hollow.  Stalks  of  grass  and  grain  are  so  light  as  to  bend  before  a  breath 
of  wind,  yet  are  stiff  enough  to  sustain  their  load  of  seed. 

t  Mix  a  wineglass  of  muriatic  acid  with  a  pint  of  water,  nnd  place  in  it  a  sheep's 
rib.  In  a  day  or  two,  it  will  be  so  soft  that  it  can  be  tied  into  a  knot.  In  the  same 
way,  an  egg  may  be  mode  so  pliable  that  it  can  be  crowded  into  a  narrow-necked 
bottle,  within  which  it  will  expand,  and  become  an  object  of  great  curiosity  to  the 
uninitiated.  By  boiling  bones  at  a  high  temperature,  the  animal  matter  separates  in 
the  form  of  gelatin.  Dogs  and  cats  extract  the  animal  matter  from  the  bones  they 
eat.  Fossil  bones  deposited  in  the  ground  during  the  Geologic  period,  were  found 
by  Cuvier  to  contain  considerable  animal  matter.  Gelatin  was  actually  extracted 
from  the  Cambridge  mastodon,  and  made  into  glue.  A  tolerably  nutritious  food 
might  thus  be  manufactured  from  bones  older  than  man  himself. 

t  Prom  bones  thus  calcined,  the  phosphorus  of  the  chemist  is  made.  See  Chem- 
istry, page  120.  If  the  animal  matter  be  not  consumed,  but  only  charred,  the  bone 
will  be  black  and  brittle.  In  this  way,  the  u  bone-black "  of  commerce  is  manu- 
factured. 


THE  STRUCTUBE  OF  THE  BONES. 


The  entire  bone  is  at  first  composed 
of  cartilage,  which  gradually  ossifies 
or  turns  to  bone.*  Certain  portions 
near  the  joints  are  long  delayed  in  this 
process,  and  by  their  elasticity  assist 
[-  in  breaking  the  shock  of  a  fall,  f  Hence 
the  bones  of  children  are  tough,  are 
not  readily  fractured,  and  when  broken 
easily  heal  again  ;J  while  those  of  elder- 
ly people  are  liable  to  fracture,  and  do 
not  quickly  unite. 

The  Structure  of  the  Bones. — When 
a  bone  is  sawed  lengthwise,  it  is  found 
to  be  a  compact  shell  filled  with  a 
spongy  substance.  This  filling  increases 
in  quantity,  and  becomes  more  porous 

*  "  The  ossification  of  the  bones  on  the  sides  and  upper 
part  of  the  skull,  for  example,  begins  by  a  rounded  spot  in 
the  middle  of  each  one.  From  this  spot  the  ossification  ex- 
tends outward  in  every  direction,  Ihus  gradually  approaching 
the  edges  of  the  bone.  When  two  adjacent,  bones  meet,  there 
will  be  a  line  where  their  edges  are  in  contact  with  each 
other,  but  have  not  yet  united  ;  but  when  more  than  two 
bones  meet  in  this  way,  there  will  be  an  empty  space  between 
them  at  their  point  of  junction.  Thus,  if  you  lay  down  three 
coins  upon  the  table  with  their  edges  touching  one  another, 
there  will  bo  a  three-sided  space  in  the  middle  between  them  ; 
if  you  lay  down  four  coins  in  the  same  manner,  the  space  between  them 
will  be  four-sided.  Now  at  the  back  part  of  the  head  there  is  a  spot  where 
three  bonea  come  together  in  this  way,  leaving  a  small,  three-sided  opening 
between  them  :  this  is  called  the  "  posterior  fontanelle.'1  On  the  top  of  the  head 
four  bones  come  together,  leaving  between  them  a  large,  four-sided  opening:  this  is 
called  the  "anterior  fontanelle.'1  These  openings  are  termed  the  fontanelles, 
because  we  can  feel  the  pulsations  of  the  brain  through  them,  like  the  bubbling 
of  water  in  a  fountain.  The  fontanelles  gradually  diminish  in  size,  owing  to  the 
growth  of  the  bony  parts  around  them,  and  are  completely  closed  at  the  age  of  four 
years  after  birth."— Dalian's  Physiology,  p.  331. 

t  Frogs  and  toads,  which  move  by  jumping,  and  consequently  receive  so  many 
jars,  retain  these  unossified  portions  (epiphyses)  nearly  through  life ;  while  alligators 
and  turtles,  whose  position  is  sprawling,  and  whose  motions  are  measured,  do  not 
have  them  at  a\L—Leidy. 

t  This  is  only  one  of  the  many  illustrations  of  the  Infinite  care  that  watches  over 
helpless  infancy,  until  knowledge  and  ability  are  acquired  to  meet  the  perils  of  life. 


The  thigh-bone,  or 

femur  sawed 

lengthwise. 


8 


THE   SKELETON. 


at  the  ends  of  the  bone,  thus  giving  greater  size  to 
form  a  strong  joint,  while  the  solid  portion  increases 
near  the  middle,  where  strength  alone  is  needed. 
Each  fiber  of  this  bulky  material  diminishes  the 
shock  of  a  sudden  blow,  and  also  acts  as  a  beam  to 


Fig.  9. 


A  thin  slice  of  bone,  highly  magnified,  showing  the  lacunae,  the  tiny  tubes  (canal' 
iculi)  radiating  from  them,  and  four  Eaversian  canals,  three  seen  crosswise  and  one 
lengthwise. 

brace  the  exterior  wall.  The  recumbent  position  of 
the  alligator  protects  him  from  falls,  and  therefore 
his  bones  contain  very  little  spongy  substance. 

In  the  body,  bones  are  not  the  dry,  dead,  blanched 
things  they  commonly  seem  to  be,  but  are  moist, 
living,  pinkish  structures,  covered  with  a  tough 
membrane  called  the  per-i-os'-te-um,*  (peri,  around, 

*  The  relations  of  the  periosteum  to  the  bone  are  very  interesting.  Instances  are 
on  record  where  the  bone  has  been  removed,  leaving  the  periosteum,  from  which 
the  entire  bone  waa  afterward  renewed. 


GROWTH  OF  THE  BONES. 


and  osteon,  a  bone),  while  the  hollow  is  filled 
with  marrow,  rich  in  fat,  and  full  of  blood-vessels. 
If  we  examine  a  thin  slice  with  the  microscope, 
we  shall  see  black  spots  with  lines  running  in  all 
directions,  and  looking  very  like  minute  insects. 
These  are  really  little  cavities  called  la-cu-nce* 
from  which  radiate  tiny  tubes.  The  lacunae  are 
arranged  in  circles  around  larger  tubes,  termed 
from  their  discoverer,  Haversian  canals,  which  serve 
as  passages  for  the  blood-vessels  that  nourish  the 
bone. 

jN  Growth  of  the  Bones. — By  means  of  this  system 
of  canals,  the  blood  circulates  as  freely  through  the 
bones  as  through  any  part  of  the  body.  The  whole 
structure  is  constantly  but  slowly  changing,  f  old 
material  being  taken  out  and  new  put  in.  A  curi- 
ous illustration  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  if  madder 
be  mixed  with  the  food  of  pigs,  it  will  tinge  their 
bones  red. 

Repair  of  the  Bones. — When  a  bone  is  broken,  the 
blood  at  once  oozes  out  of  the  fractured  ends.  This 
soon  gives  place  to  a  watery  fluid,  which  in  a  fort- 
night thickens  to  a  gristly  substance  strong  enough 
to  hold  them  in  place.  Bone-matter  is  then  slowly 
deposited,  which  in  five  or  six  weeks  will  unite  the 
broken  parts.  Nature,  at  first,  apparently  endeavors 
to  remedy  the  weakness  of  the  material  by  excess  in 
the  quantity,  and  so  the  new  portion  is  larger  than 
the  old.  But  the  extra  matter  will  be  gradually 

*  When  the- bone  is  dry,  the  lacnnse  are  filled  with  air,  which  refracts  the  light,  so 
that  none  of  it  reaches  the  eye,  and  hence  the  cavities  appear  black. 

t  Bone  is  sometimes  produced  with  surprising  rapidity.  The  great  Irish  Elk  is 
calc-ulated  by  Prof.  Owen  to  have  cast  off  and  renewed  annually  in  its  antlers  eighty 
pounds  of  bone. 


10  THE  SKELETON. 

absorbed,  sometimes  so  perfectly  as  to  leave  no  trace 
of  the  injury. 

A  broken  limb  should  always  be  held  in  place 
by  splints  to  enable  this  process  to  go  on  uninter- 
ruptedly, and  also  lest  a  sudden  jar  might  rupture 
the  partially-mended  break.  For  a  long  time,  the 
new  portion  consists  largely  of  animal  matter,  and 
so  is  tender  and  pliable.  The  utmost  care  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  prevent  a  malformation. 

The  Joints  are  packed  with  a  soft,  smooth  carti- 
lage, or  gristle,  which  fits  so  perfectly  as  often  to  be 
air-tight.  Upon  convex  surfaces,  it  is  thickest  at  the 
middle,  and  upon  concave  surfaces,  it  is  thickest  at 
the  edge,  or  where  the  wear  is  greatest.  In  addi- 
tion, the  ends  of  the  bones  are  covered  with  a  thin 
membrane,  the  ^ynovial  (sun,  with  ;  ovum,  an  egg), 
which  secretes  a  viscid  fluid,  not  unlike  the  white  of 
an  egg.  This  lubricates  the  joints,  and  prevents  the 
noise  and  wear  of  friction.  The  body  is  the  only 
machine  that  oils  itself. 

The  bones  which  form  the  joint  are  tied  with  stout 
ligaments  (^o,  I  bind),  or  bands,  of  a  smooth,  silvery 
white  tissue,*  so  strong  that  the  bones  are  sometimes 
broken  without  injuring  the  fastenings. 


*  The  general  term  tissue  is  applied  to  the  various  textures  of  which  the  organs 
arc  composed.  For  example,  the  osseous  tissue  forms  the  bones;  the  fibrous  tissue, 
the  skin,  tendons,  and  ligaments. 


THE  HEAD. 


11 


II.    CLASSIFICATION   OF    THE   BONES. 

For  convenience,  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  are 
considered  in  three  divisions :  the  head,  the  trunk, 
and  the  limbs. 

1.    THE     HEAD. 

Fig.  U. 


The  Skull.— 1,  frontal  bone;  3, parietal  bone;  3,  temporal  bone;  A,  the  sphenoid 
bone;  5,  eilimoid  bone;  6,  superior  maxillary  (upper  jaw)  bone;  7,  malar  bone; 
8,  lachrymal  bone  ;  9,  nasal  bone ;  10,  inferior  maxillary  (lower  jaw)  bone. 


The  Bones  of  the  Skull  and  the  Face  form  a 
cavity  for  the  protection  of  the  brain  and  the  four 
organs  of  sense,  viz. :  sight,  smell,  taste,  and  hear- 
ing. All  of  these  bones  are  immovable  except  the 


12  THE   SKELETON. 

lower  jaw,  which  is  hinged*  at  the  back  so  as  to 
allow  for  the  opening  and  shutting  of  the  mouth. 

The  Skull  is  composed,  in  general,  of  two  compact 
plates,  with  a  spongy  layer  between.  These  are  in 
several  pieces,  the  outer  ones  being  joined  by  notched 
edges  (sutures,  sut'yurs)  in  the  way  carpenters  term 
dove-tailing.  (See  Fig.  4.) 

The  peculiar  structure  and  form  of  the  skull  afford 
a  perfect  shelter  for  the  brain — an  organ  so  delicate 
that,  if  unprotected,  an  ordinary  blow  would  destroy 
it.  Its  oval  or  egg  shape  adapts  it  to  resist  pressure. 
The  smaller  and  stronger  end  is  in  front,  where  the 
danger  is  greatest.  Projections  before  and  behind 
shield  the  less  protected  parts.  The  hard  plates  are 
not  easy  to  penetrate,  f  The  spongy  packing  deadens 
every  blow.  J  The  separate  pieces  with  their  curious 
joinings  disperse  any  jar  which  one  may  receive,  and 
also  prevent  fractures  from  spreading. 

The  frequent  openings  in  this  strong  bone-box 
afford  safe  avenues  for  the  passage  of  numerous 
nerves  and  vessels  which  communicate  between  the 
brain  and  the  rest  of  the  body. 

*  A  ring  of  cartilage  is  inserted  in  its  joints,  something  after  the  manner  of  a 
washer  in  machinery.  This  follows  the  movements  of  the  jaw,  and  admits  of  freer 
motion,  while  it  guards  against  dislocation. 

t  Instances  have  been  known  where  bnllets  striking  nsainst  the  skiill  have 
glanced  off,  been  flattened,  or  even  split  into  halves.  In  the  Peninsular  Campaign, 
the  author  saw  a  man  who  had  been  struck  in  the  forehead  by  a  bullet  which, 
instead  of  penetrating  the  brain,  had  followed  the  skull  around  to  the  back  of  the 
head,  and  there  passed  out. 

$  An  experiment  resembling  the  familiar  one  of  the  balls  in 
Fig.  5.  Natural  Philosophy  (Steele's  Physics,  Fig.  7,  p.  30),  beautifully 

illustrates  this  point.  Several  balls  of  ivory  are  suspended  by 
cords,  as  in  Fig.  5.  If  A  be  raised  and  then  let  fall,  it  will  transmit 
the  force  to  B,  and  that  to  C,  and  so  on  until  F  is  reached,  which 
will  fly  off  with  the  impulse.  If  now  a  ball  of  spongy  bone  be 
substituted  for  an  ivory  one  anywhere  in  the  line,  the  force  will 
be  checked,  and  the  last  ball  will  not  stir. 


1?HE  SPINAL  COLUMN. 


Fig.  6. 


2.     THE     TRUNK. 

The  Trunk  has  two  important  cav- 
ities. The  upper  part,  or  chest,  con- 
tains the  heart  and  the  lungs,  and 
the  lower  part,  or  abdomen,  holds  the 
stomach,  liver,  kidneys,  and  other  or- 
gans (Fig.  31).  The  principal  bones 
are  those  of  the  spine,  the  ribs,  and 
the  hips. 

The  Spine  consists  of  twenty-four 
bones,  between  which  are  placed  pads 
of  cartilage.*  A  canal  is  hollowed 
out  of  the  column  for  the  safe  pas- 
sage of  the  spinal  cord.  (See  Fig.  50.) 
Projections  (processes)  at  the  back 
and  on  either  side  are  abundant  for 
the  attachment  of  the  muscles.  The 
packing  acts  as  a  cushion  to  prevent 
any  jar  from  reaching  the  brain  when 
we  jump  or  run,  while  the  double 
curve  of  the  spine  also  tends  to  dis- 
perse the  force  of  a  fall.  Thus  on 
every  side  the  utmost  caution  is 
taken  to  guard  that  precious  gem  6 
in  its  casket. 

The  Perfection  of  the  Spine  sur- 
passes all  human  contrivances.  Its 
various  uses  seem  a  bundle  of  con- 


The  Spine; 
the  seven  ver- 
feWV    the 
neck,  cervical; 
the  ttqelve   of 
the  odcJc,  dor- 
Mi  the  JM  of 
the  loins,  lumbar ;  a, 
the  sacrum,  and  b,  the 
coccyx,  comprising  the 
nine  "false 
(p.5)/ 


*  These  pads  vary  in  thickness  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  an  inch.  They  become 
condensed  by  the  weight  they  bear  during  the  day,  so  that  we  are  somewhat  shorter 
at  evening  than  in  the  morning.  Their  elasticity  causes  them  to  resume  their  usual 
size  during  the  night,  or  when  we  lie  down  for  a  time. 


14 


THE  SKELETON. 


tradictions.  A  chain  of  twenty-four  bones  is  made 
so  stiff  that  it  will  bear  a  heavy  burden,  and  so  flex- 
ible that  it  will  bend  like  rubber ;  yet,  all  the  while, 
it  transmits  no  shock,  and  even  hides  a  delicate  nerve 
within  that  would  thrill  with  the  slightest  touch. 
Resting  upon  it,  the  brain  is  borne  without  a  tremor ; 
and,  clinging  to  it,  the  vital  organs  are  carried  with^ 
out  fear  of  harm. 

Fig.  7. 


B,  the  first  cervical  vertebra,  the  atlas ;  A,  the  atlas,  and  the  second  cervical  vertebra, 
the  axis ;  e,  the  odontoid  process ;  c,  the  foramen. 

The  Skull  Articulates  with  (is  jointed  to)  the  spine 
in  a  peculiar  manner.  On  the  top  of  the  upper  ver- 
tebra (atlas*)  are  two  little  hollows  (a,  &,  Fig.  7), 
nicely  packed  and  lined  with  the  synovial  mem- 
brane, into  which  fit  the  corresponding  projections 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  skull,  and  thus  the  head  can 
rock  to  and  fro.  The  second  vertebra  (axis)  has  a 
peg,  e,  which  projects  through  a  hole,  c,  in  the  first. 

The  surfaces  of  both  vertebrae  are  so  smooth  that 
they  easily  glide  on  each  other,  and  thus,  when  we 
move  the  head  sidewise,  the  atlas  turns  around  the 
peg,  e,  of  the  axis. 

The  Ribs,  also  twenty-four  in  number,  are  arranged 
in  pairs  on  each  side  of  the  chest.  At  the  back,  they 

*  Thna  called  because,  as,  In  ancient  fable,  the  god  Atlas  supported  the  world  on 
bis  shoulders,  so  in  the  body  this  bone  bears  the  head. 


THE  BIBS.  15 


The  Thorax,  or  Chest :  a,  the.  sternum ;  b  to  c,  the  true  ribs ;  d  to  h,  the  false  ribs  ; 
g,  h,  the  floating  ribs  ;  i  k,  the  dorsal  vertebrae. 


are  all  attached  to  the  spine.  In  front,  the  upper 
seven  pairs  are  tied  by  cartilages  to  the  breast-bone 
(sternum) ;  three  are  fastened  to  each  other  and  the 
cartilage  above,  and  two,  the  floating  ribs,  are  loose. 
The  natural  form  of  the  chest  is  that  of  a  cone 
diminishing  upward.  But,  owing  to  the  tightness  of 
the  clothing  commonly  worn,  the  reverse  is  often 
the  case.  The  long,  slender  ribs  give  lightness,*  the 
arched  form  confers  strength,  and  the  cartilages 
impart  elasticity, — properties  essential  to  the  pro- 
tection of  the  delicate  organs  within,  and  to  freedom 
of  motion  in  respiration.  (See  note,  p.  80.) 

*  If  the  chest-wall  were  in  one  bone  thick  enough  to  resiet  a  blow,  it  would  be 
unwieldy  and  heavy.  As  it  is,  the  separate  bones  bound  by  cartilages  yield  gradu- 
ally, and  diffuse  the  force  among  them  all,  and  so  are  rarely  broken. 


16  THE  SKELETON. 

rig.  9. 


The  Pelvis :  a,  the  sacrum ;  b,  b,  the  right  and  the  left  innominatum. 

The  Hip-bones,  called  by  anatomists  the  innomi- 
nata,  or  nameless  bones,  form  an  irregular  basin 
styled  the  pelvis  (pelvis,  a  basin).  In  the  upper  part, 
is  the  foot  of  the  spinal  column — a  wedge-shaped 
bone  termed  the  sacrum*  (sacred),  firmly  planted 
here  between  the  wide-spreading  and  solid  bones  of 
the  pelvis,  like  the  keystone  to  an  arch,  and  giving 
a  steady  support  to  the  heavy  burden  above. 


3.    THE     LIMBS. 

Two  Sets  of  Limbs  branch  from  the  trunk,  viz. : 
the  upper,  and  the  lower.  They  closely  resemble  each 
other.  The  arm  corresponds  to  the  thigh  ;  the  fore- 
arm, to  the  leg  ;  the  wrist,  to  the  ankle  ;  the  fingers, 
to  the  toes.  The  fingers  and  the  toes  are  so  much 
alike  that  they  receive  the  same  name,  digits,  while 
the  several  bones  of  both  have  also  the  common 
appellation,  phalanges.  The  differences  which  exist 

*  So  called  because  it  was  anciently  offered  in  sacrifice. 


THE  SHOULDER. 


17 


Fig.  10. 


grow  out  of  their  varying  uses.     The  foot  is  charac- 
terized by  strength  ;  the  hand,  by  mobility. 

1.  The  Upper  Limbs. — The  Shoulder.  —  The  bones 
of  the  shoulder  are  the  collar-bone  (clavicle),  and 
the  shoulder-blade  (scapula).  The  clavicle  (clavis,  a 
key)  is  a  long,  slender  bone,  shaped  like  1;he  Italic 
/.  It  is  fastened  at  one  end  to  the  breast-bone  and 
the  first  rib,  and,  at  the  other, 
to  the  shoulder-blade.  (See 
Fig.  1.)  It  thus  holds  the 
shoulder  -  joint  out  from  the 
chest,  and  gives  the  arm 
greater  play.  If  it  be  removed 
or  broken,  the  head  of  the  arm- 
bone  will  fall,  and  the  motions 
of  the  arm  be  greatly  re- 
stricted. * 

The  Shoulder-bladg  is  a  thin, 
flat,  triangular  bone,  fitted  to 
the  top  and  back  of  the  chest, 
and  designed  to  give  a  founda- 
tion for  the  muscles  of  the 
shoulder. 

The    Shoulder  -  joint.  —  The 

arm-bone,  or  humerus,  articulates  with  the  shoul- 
der-blade by  a  ball-and-socket  joint.  This  consists 
of  a  cup-like  cavity  in  the  latter  bone,  and  a  rounded 
head  in  the  former,  to  fit  it, — thus  affording  a  free 
rotary  motion.  The  shallowness  of  the  socket  ac- 
counts for /the  frequent  dislocation  of  this  joint,  but  a 
deeper  one  would  diminish  the  easy  swing  of  the  arm. 

*  Animals  which  use  the  forelegs  only  for  support  (as  the  horse,  ox,  etc )  do  not 
possess  this  bone.    "  It  is  found  in  those  that  dig,  fly,  climb,  and  seize." 


The  Shoulder-joint ;  a,  the 
clavicle  ;  b,  the  scapula. 


18 


THE  SKELETON. 


Fig.it  The    Elbow.  —  At  the  el- 

bow, the  humerus  articulates 
with  the  ulna  —  a  slender 
bone  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  forearm  — by  a  hinge- 
joint  which  admits  of  mo- 
tion in  only  two  directions, 
i.  e.,  backward  and  forward. 
The  ulna  is  small  at  its 
lower  end;  the  radius,  or 
large  bone  of  the  forearm, 
on  the  contrary,  is  small  at 
its  upper  end,  while  it  is 
large  at  its  lower  end,  where 
it  forms  the  wrist- joint.  At 
the  elbow,  the  head  of  the 
radius  is  convex  and  fits  into 
a  shallow  cavity  in  the  ulna, 
while  at  the  wrist  the  ulna 
plays  in  a  similar  socket  in 

the  radius.    Thus  the  radius  may  roll  over  and  even 
cross  the  ulna. 

The  Wrist,  or  carpus,  consists  of  two  rows  of 
very  irregular  bones,  one  of  which  articulates  with 
the  fore-arm  ;  the  other,  with  the  hand.  They  are 
placed  side  to  side  and  so  firmly  fastened  as  to 
admit  of  only  a  gliding  motion.  This  gives  little 
play,  but  great  strength,  elasticity,  and  power  of 
resisting  shocks. 

The  Hand. — The  metacarpal  (meta,  beyond ;  and 
karpos,  wrist),  or  bones  of  the  palm,  support  each 
a  thumb  or  finger.  Each  finger  has  three  bones 


B  A 

Bones  of  the  right  Fore-arm  ;  H, 
the  humerus;  R,  the  radius;  and 
U,  the  ulna. 


THE  HAND. 


19 


Bones  of  the  Hand  and  the  Wrist. 


while  the  thumb  has  only  msft  If> 

two.      The    first   bone  of 

the  thumb,  standing  apart 

from   the    rest,   enjoys    a 

special  freedom  of  motion, 

and    adds   greatly  to  the 

usefulness  of  the  hand. 

The  first  bone  (Figs.  11, 
12)  of  each  finger  is  so 
attached  to  the  correspond- 
ing metacarpal  bone  as  to 
move  in  several  directions 
upon  it,  but  the  other  pha- 
langes form  hinge- joints. 

The  fingers  are  named 
in  order :  the  thumb,  the 
index,  the  middle,  the  ring,  and  the  little  finger. 
Their  different  lengths  cause  them  to  fit  the  hollow 
of  the  hand  when  it  is  closed,  and  probably  enable 
us  more  easily  to  grasp  objects  of  varying  size.  If 
the  hand  clasps  a  ball,  the  tips  of  the  fingers  will  be 
in  a  straight  line. 

The  hand  in  its  perfection  belongs  only  to  man. 
Its  elegance  of  outline,  delicacy  of  mold,  and  beauty 
of  color  have  made  it  the  study  of  artists  ;  while  its 
exquisite  mobility  and  adaptation  as  a  perfect 
instrument  have  led  many  philosophers  to  attribute 
man's  superiority  even  more  to  the  hand  than  to  the 
mind.* 

*  How  constantly  the  hand  aids  us  in  explaining  or  enforcing  a  thought  1  We 
affirm  a  fact  by  placing  the  hand  as  if  we  would  rest  it  firmly  on  a  body  ;  we  deny 
by  a  gesture  putting  the  false  or  erroneous  proposition  away  from  us  ;  we  express 
doubt  by  holding  the  hand  suspended,  as  if  hesitating  whether  to  take  or  reject. 
When  we  part  from  dear  friends,  or  greet  them  again  after  long  absence,  the  hand 


20 


THE  SKELETON. 

Fly.  IS. 


The  Hip-joint. 

2.  The  Lower  Limbs. — The  Hip. — The  thigh-bone, 
or  femur,  is  the  largest  and  necessarily  the  strongest 
in  the  skeleton,  since  at  every  step  it  has  to  bear 
the  weight  of  the  whole  body.  It  articulates  with 
the  hip-bone  by  a  ball-and-socket  joint.  Unlike  the 
shoulder- joint  j  the  cup  here  is  deep,  thus  affording 
less  play,  but  greater  strength.  It  fits  so  tightly  that 
the  pressure  of  the  air  largely  aids  in  keeping  the 
bones  in  place.*  Indeed,  when  the  muscles  are  cut 
away,  great  force  is  required  to  detach  the  limbs. 

extends  toward  them  as  if  to  retain,  or  to  bring  them  sooner  to  us.  If  a  recital  or  a 
proposition  is  revolting,  we  reject  it  energetically  in  gesture  as  in  thought.  In  a 
friendly  adieu  we  wave  our  good  wishes  to  him  who  is  their  object ;  but  when  it 
expresses  enmity,  by  a  brusque  movement  we  sever  every  tie.  The  open  hand  is 
carried  backward  to  express  fear  or  horror,  as  well  as  to  avoid  contact;  it  goes  for- 
ward to  meet  the  hand  of  friendship ;  it  is  raissd  snppliantly  in  prayer  toward 
Him  from  whom  we  hope  for  help :  it  caresses  lovingly  the  downy  cheek  of  the 
infant,  and  rests  on  its  head  invoking  the  blessing  of  Heaven.—  Wonders  of  the 
Human  Body. 

*  In  order  to  test  this,  a  hole  was  bored  through  a  hip-bone  so  as  to  admit  air  into 
the  socket ;  the  thigh-bone  at  once  fell  out  as  far  as  the  ligaments  would  permit.   An 


THE  FOOT.  21 

The  Knee  is  strengthened  by  the  patella,  or  knee- 
pan  (patella,  little  dish),  a  chestnut-shaped  bone 
firmly  fastened  over  the  joint. 

The  shin-bone,  or  tibia,  the  large,  triangular  bone 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  leg,  articulates  both  with  the 
femur  and  the  foot  by  a  hinge-joint.  The  knee-joint 
is  so  made,  however,  as  to  admit  of  a  slight  rotary 
motion  when  the  limb  is  not  extended. 

The  fibula  (fibula,  a  clasp),  the  small,  outside  bone 
of  the  leg,  is  firmly  bound  at  both  ends  to  the  tibia. 
(See  Fig.  1.)  It  is  immovable,  and,  as  the  tibia  bears 
the  principal  weight  of  the  body,  the  chief  use  of 
this  second  bone  seems  to  be  to  give  more  surface  to 
which  the  muscles  may  be  attached.* 

The  Foot— The  general  arrangement  of  the  foot  is 
strikingly  like  that  of  the  hand  (Fig.  1).  The  several 
parts  are  the  tarsus,  the  metatarsus,  and  the  pha- 
langes. The  graceful  arch  of  the  foot,  and  the  nu- 
merous bones  joined  by  cartilages,  give  an  elasticity 
to  the  step  that  could  never  be  attained  by  a  single, 
flat  bone.  The  toes  naturally  lie  straight  forward  in 
the  line  of  the  foot.  Few  persons  in  civilized  nations, 
however,  have  naturally -formed  feet.  The  big  toe 

experiment  was  also  devised  whereby  a  suitably-prepared  hip-joint  was  placed  under 
the  receiver  of  an  air-pump.  On  exhausting  the  air,  the  weight  of  the  femur  caused 
it  to  drop  out  of  the  socket,  while  the  re-admission  of  the  air  raised  it  to  its  place. 
Without  this  arrangement,  the  adjacent  muscles  would  have  been  compelled  to  bear 
the  additional  weight  of  the  thigh-bone  every  time  it  was  raised.  Now  the  pressure 
of  the  air  rids  them  of  this  unnecessary  burden,  and  hence  they  are  less  easily 
fatigued.—  Weber. 

*  A  young  man  in  the  hospital  at  Limoges  had  lost  the  middle  part  of  his  tibia. 
The  lost  bone  was  not  reproduced,  but  the  fibula,  the  naturally  weak  and  slender 
part  of  the  leg,  became  thick  and  strong  enough  to  support  the  whole  body.  An 
experiment  has  been  performed  which  illustrates  this  idea  still  more  strikingly.  An 
inch  of  the  middle  part  of  the  fibula  of  an  animal  was  cut  out.  A  long  time  after- 
ward the  beast  was  killed,  when  the  tibia  was  found  to  have  become  considerably 
larger  in  that  part  of  it  which  corresponded  exactly  with  the  defect  in  the  fibula.— 
Stanley^  Lectures. 


22  THE  SKELETON. 

is  crowded  upon  the  others,  while  crossed  toes,  nails 
grown-in,  enormous  joints,corns,and  bunions  abound. 

The  Cause  of  these  Deformities  is  found  in  the 
shape  and  size  of  fashionable  boots  and  shoes.  The 
sole  ought  to  be  large  enough  for  full  play  of  motion, 
the  uppers  should  not  crowd  the  toes,  and  the  heels 
should  be  low,  flat,  and  broad.  As  it  is,  there  is  a 
constant  warfare  between  Nature  and  our  shoe- 
makers,* and  we  are  the  victims.  The  narrow  point 
in  front  pinches  our  toes,  and  compels  them  to  over- 
ride one  another;  the  narrow  sole  compresses  the 
arch ;  while  the  high  heel,  by  throwing  all  the 
weight  forward  on  the  toes,  strains  the  ankle,  and, 
by  sending  the  pressure  where  Nature  did  not 
design  it  to  fall,  causes  that  joint  to  become  en- 
larged. The  body  bends  forward  to  meet  the 
demand  of  this  new  motion,  and  thus  loses  its  up- 
rightness and  beauty,  making  our  gait  stiff  and  un- 
graceful. 

Diseases,  etc. — 1.  THE  RICKETS  are  caused  by  a 
lack  of  mineral  matter  in  the  bones,  rendering  them 
soft  and  pliable,  so  that  they  bend  under  the  weight 
of  the  body.  They  thus  become  permanently  dis- 
torted, and  of  course  are  weaker  than  if  they  were 
straight,  f  The  disease  is  cured  by  a  more  nutritive 


*  When  we  are  measured  for  boots  or  shoes,  we  should  stand  on  a  sheet  of 
paper,  and  have  the  shoemaker  mark  with  a  pencil  the  exact  outline  of  our  feet  as 
they  hear  our  whole  weight.  When  the  shoe  is  made,  the  sole  should  exactly  cover 
this  outline. 

t  Just  here  appears  an  exceedingly  beautiful  provision.  As  soon  as  the  dispro- 
portion of  animal  matter  censes,  a  larger  supply  of  mineral  is  sent  to  the  weak 
points,  and  the  hones  actually  become  thicker,  denser,  harder,  and  consequently 
stronger  at  the  very  concave  part  where  the  stress  of  pressure  is  greatest. — Watson's 
Lectures.  We  shall  often  have  occasion  to  refer  to  similar  wise  and  providential 
arrangements  whereby  the  body  is  enabled  to  remedy  defects,  and  to  prepare  for 
accidents. 


DISEASES,  ETC.  23 

diet,  or  by  taking  phosphate  of  lime  to  supply  the 
lack. 

2.  A  FELON  is  a  swelling  of  the  finger  or  thumb, 
usually  of  the  last  joint.     It  is  marked  by  an  accu- 
mulation beneath  the  periosteum  and  next  the  bone. 
The  physician  will  merely  cut  through  the  perios^- 
teum,  and  let  out  the  effete  matter. 

3.  BOWLEGS  are  caused  by  children  standing  on 
their  feet  before  the  bones  of  the  lower  limbs  are 
strong  enough  to  bear  their  weight.     The  custom  of 
encouraging  young  children  to  stand  up  by  means 
of  a  chair  or  the  support  of  the  hand,  while  the  bones 
are  yet  soft  and  pliable,  is  a  cruel  one,  and  liable  to 
produce  permanent  deformity.    Nature  will  set  the 
child  on  its  feet  when  the  proper  time  comes. 

4.  CURVATURE  OF  THE  SPINE. — When  the  spine  is 
bent,  the  packing  between  the  vertebrae  becomes 
compressed  on  one  side  into  a  wedge-like  shape. 
After  a  time,  it  will  lose  its  elasticity,  and  the  spine 
become  distorted.      This  occurs  frequently  in  the 
case  of  students  who  bend  forward  to  bring  their 
eyes  nearer  their  books,   instead    of   lifting   their 
books  nearer  their  eyes,  or  who  raise  their  right 
shoulder  above  their  left  when  writing  at  a  desk 
which  is  too  high.      Round  shoulders,  small,  weak 
lungs,  and,  oftentimes,  diseases  of  the  spine  are  the 
consequences.     An  erect  posture  in  reading  or  writ- 
ing conduces  not  alone  to  beauty  of  form,  but  also 
to  health  of  body. 

5.  SPRAINS    are    produced    when   the   ligaments 
which  bind  the  bones  of  a  joint  are  strained,  twisted, 
or  torn  from  their  attachments.     They  are  quite  as 
harmful  as  a  broken  bone,  and  require  careful  atten- 


24  THE  SKELETON. 

tion  lest  they  lead  to  a  crippling  for  life.  The  use  of 
a  sprained  limb  may  permanently  impair  its  useful- 
ness. Hence,  the  joint  should  be  kept  quiet,  even 
after  the  immediate  pain  is  gone. 

6.  A  DISLOCATION  is  produced  by  the  rupture  of 
the  tissues  of  the  joint  so  that  the  head  of  the  bone 
is  driven  out  of  its  socket  and  into  some  other  place 
both  by  the  force  of  the  blow  which  caused  the 
injury  and  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles. 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  does  not  a  fall  hurt  a  child  as  much  as  it  does  a  grown 
person  ? 

2.  Should  a  young  child  ever  be  urged  to  stand  or  walk? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  "  breaking  one's  neck  "  ? 

4.  Should  chairs  or  benches  have  straight  backs? 

5.  Should  a  child's  feet  be  allowed  to  dangle  from  a  high  seat  ? 

6.  Why  can  we  tell  whether  a  fowl  is  young  by  pressing  on  the  point 
of  the  breast-bone  ? 

7.  What  is  the  use  of  the  marrow  in  the  bones? 

8.  Why  is  the  shoulder  so  often  put  out  of  joint  ? 

9.  How  can  you  tie  a  knot  in  a  bone  ? 

10.  Why  are  high  pillows  injurious? 

11.  Is  the  "  Grecian  bend  "  a  healthful  position  ? 

12.  Should  a  boot  have  a  heel-piece? 

13.  Why  should  one  always  sit  and  walk  erect  ? 

14.  Why  does  a  young  child  creep  rather  than  walk  ? 

15.  What  is  the  natural  direction  of  the  big  toe  ? 


II. 
THE    MUSCLES. 


"  Behold  the  outivard moving  frame \ 
Its  living  marbles  jointed  strong 
With  glistening  band  and  silvery  thong% 
And  link'd  to  reason's  guiding  reins 
By  myriad  rings  in  trembling  chains, 
Each  graven  with  the  threaded  zone 
Which  claims  it  as  the  Master's  own*' 

HOLMES, 


BLACKBOARD      ANALYSIS. 


1  THE  USE,  STRUCTURE, 
AND  ACTION  OP  THE 
MUSCLES. 


2.  THE  MUSCULAR  SENSE. 


HYGIENE     OP 
MUSCLES. 


1.  The  use  of  the  muscles. 

2.  Contractility  of  the  muscles. 

3.  Arrangement  of  the  muscles. 

4.  The  two  kinds  of  muscles. 

5.  The  structure  of  the  muscles. 

6.  The  tendons  for  fastening  muscles, 

7.  The  muscles  and  bones  as  levers. 

8.  The  effect  of  big  joints. 

9.  Action  of  the  muscles  in  standing. 
10.  Action  of  the  muscles  in  walking. 


1.  Necessity  of  Exercise. 

2.  Time  for  Exercise. 

3.  Kinds  of  Exercise. 


4.  WONDERS  OF  THE  MUSCLES. 


5.  DISEASES 


1.  St.  Vitns's  Dance. 

2.  Convulsions. 

3.  Locked-jaw. 

4.  Gout. 

5.  Rheumatism. 

6.  Lumbago. 

7.  A  Ganglion. 


THE    MUSCLES. 

rpHE  Use  of  the  Muscles.— The  skeleton  is  the 
J-  image  of  death.  Its  unsightly  appearance  in- 
stinctively repels  us.  We  have  seen,  however,  what 
uses  it  subserves  in  the  body,  and  how  the  ugly- 
looking  bones  abound  in  nice  contrivances  and  inge- 
nious workmanship.  In  life,  the  framework  is 
hidden  by  the  flesh.  This  covering  is  a  mass  of 
muscles,  which  not  only  give  form  and  symmetry 
to  the  body,  but  also  produce  its  varied  movements. 

In  Fig.  14,  we  see  the  large  exterior  muscles.  Be- 
neath these  are  many  others  ;  while  deeply  hidden 
within  are  tiny,  delicate  ones,  too  small  to  .be  seen 
with  the  naked  eye.  There  are,  in  all,  about  five 
hundred,  each  having  its  special  use,  and  all  working 
in  exquisite  harmony  and  perfection. 

Contractility. — The  peculiar  property  of  the  muscles 
is  their  power  of  contraction,  whereby  they  decrease 
in  length  and  increase  in  thickness.*  This  may  be 
caused  by  an  effort  of  the  will,  by  cold,  by  a  sharp 
blow,  &c.  It  does  not  cease  at  death,  but,  in  certain 
cold-blooded  animals,  a  contraction^  the  muscles  is 
often  noticed  long  after  the  head  has  been  cut  off. 

*  The  maximum  force  of  this  contraction  has  been  estimated  as  high  as  from  85 
to  114  pounds  per  square  inch. 


30  THE  MUSCLES. 

Arrangement  of  the  Muscles.*  —  The  muscles 
are  nearly  all  arranged  in  pairs,  each  with  its 
antagonist,  so  that,  as  they  contract  and  expand 
alternately,  the  bone  to  which  they  are  attached  is 
moved  to  and  fro. 

If  you  grasp  the  arm  tightly  with  your  hand  just 
above  the  elbow- joint,  and  bend  the  forearm,  you 
will  feel  the  muscle  on  the  inside  (biceps,  a,  Fig.  14) 
swell,  and  become  hard  and  prominent,  while  the 
outside  muscle  (triceps,  /)  will  be  relaxed.  Now 
straighten  the  arm,  and  the  swelling  and  hardness 
of  the  inside  muscle  will  vanish,  while  the  outside 
one  will,  in  turn,  become  rigid.  So,  also,  if  you  clasp 
the  arm  just  below  the  elbow,  and  then  open  and 
shut  the  fingers,  you  can  feel  the  alternate  expand- 
ing and  relaxing  of  the  muscles  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  arms. 

If  the  muscles  on  one  side  of  the  face  become 
palsied,  those  on  the  other  side  will  draw  the  mouth 
that  way.  Squinting  is  caused  by  one  of  the  straight 
muscles  of  the  eye  (Fig.  17)  contracting  more 
strongly  than  its  antagonist. 

Kinds  of  Muscles. — There  are  two  kinds  of  muscles, 
the  voluntary,  which  are  under  the  control  of  our 
will,  and  the  involuntary,  which  are  not.  Thus  our 
limbs  stiffen  or  relax  as  we  please,  but  the  heart 
beats  on  by  day  and  by  night.  The  eyelid,  however, 

*  "  Could  we  behold  properly  thn  muscular  fibers  in  operation,  nothing,  as  a  mere 
mechanical  exhibition,  can  be  conceived  more  superb  than  the  intricate  and  com- 
bined actions  that  must  take  place  during  our  most  common  movement?.  Look  nt  a 
person  running  or  leaping,  or  watch  the  motions  of  the  eye.  How  rapid,  how  deli- 
cate, how  complicated,  and  3-et  how  accurate,  are  the  motions  required  1  Think  of 
the  endurance  of  Buch  a  muscle  as  the  heart,  that  can  contract,  with  a  force  eqnal  to 
sixty  pounds,  seventy-five  times  every  minute,  for  eighty  years  together,  without 
being  weary." 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  MUSCLES.        31 

is  both  voluntary  and  involuntary,  so  that  while  we 
wink  constantly  without  effort,  we  can,  to  a  certain 
extent,  restrain  or  control  the  motion. 

Structure  of  the  Muscles. — If  we  take  a  piece  of 
lean  beef  and  wash  out  the  red  color,  we  can  easily 
detect  the  fine  fibers  of  which  the  meat  is  composed. 
In  boiling  corned  beef  for  the  table,  the  fibers  often 
separate,  owing  to  the  dissolving  of  the  delicate 
tissue  which  bound  them  together.  By  means  of 
the  microscope,  we  find  that  these  fibers  are  made 
up  of  minute  filaments  (fibrils),  and  that  each  fibril 
is  composed  of  a  row  of  small  cells  arranged  like  a 
string  of  beads.  This  gives  the  muscles  a  peculiar 
striped  (striated)  appearance.*  The  cells  are  filled 
with  a  fluid  or  semi-fluid  mass  of  living  (protoplas- 
mic) matter. 

The  binding  of  so  many  threads  into  one  bundle  f 
confers  great  strength,  according  to  a  mechanical 


Fig.  15. 


Microscopic  view  of  a  Muscle,  showing,  at  one  end,  the  fibrillce,  ;  and,  at  the  other, 
the  disks,  or  cells,  of  the  Jiber. 

principle   that  we    see   exemplified   in    suspension 
bridges,  where  the  weight  is  sustained,  not  by  bars 

*  The  involuntary  muscles  consist  generally  of  smooth,  fihrons  tissue,  and  form 
sheets  or  membranes  in  the  walls  of  hollow  organs.  By  their  contraction  they 
change  the  size  of  cavities  which  they  enclose.  Some  functions,  however,  like  the 
action  of  the  heart,  or  the  movements  of  deglutition  (swallowing),  require  the  rapid, 
vigorous  contraction,  characteristic  of  the  voluntary  muscular  tissue.—  Flint. 

t  We  shall  learn  hereafter  how  thcee  fibers  are  firmly  tied  together  by  a  mesh  of 
fine  connective  tissue  which  dissolves  in  boiling,  as  just  described. 


THE  MUSCLES. 


Fig.  16. 


of  iron,  but  by  small  wires  twisted  into  massive 
ropes. 

The  Tendons. — The  ends  of  the  muscles  are  gene- 
rally attached  to  the  bone  by  strong,  flexible,  but 
inelastic  tendons.  *  The  muscular  fibers  spring  from 

the  sides  of  the  tendon,  so 
that  more  of  them  can  act 
upon  the  bone  than  if  they 
went  directly  to  it.  Besides, 
the  small,  insensible  tendon 
can  better  bear  the  exposure 
of  passing  over  a  joint,  and 
be  more  easily  lodged  in  some 
protecting  groove,  than  the 
broad,  sensitive  muscle.  This 
mode  of  attachment  gives  to 
the  limbs  strength,  and  ele- 
gance of  form.  Thus,  for 
example,  if  the  large  muscles 
of  the  arm  extended  to  the 
hand,  they  would  make  it 
bulky  and  clumsy.  The  ten- 
dons, however,  reach  only  to 
the  wrist,  whence  fine  cords 
pass  to  the  fingers  (Fig.  1G). 

Here  we  notice  two  other 
admirable  arrangements.     1. 
If   the  long  tendons  at  the 
wrist  on  contracting  should 
rise,  projections  would  be  made  and  thus  the  beauty  of 


Tendon*  qf  Hie  Hand. 


*  The  tendons  may  be  easily  seen  in  the  leg  of  a  turkey  as  it  comes  on  our  table ; 
BO,  at  a  Thanksgiving  dinner,  we  may  study  Physiology  while  we  pick  the  bones. 


THE  TENDONS. 


33 


the  slender  joint  be  marred.  To  prevent  this,  a  stout 
band  or  bracelet  of  ligament  holds  them  down  to 
their  place.  2.  In  order  to  allow  the  tendon  which 
moves  the  last  joint  of  the  finger  to  pass  through, 
the  tendon  which  moves  the  second  joint  divides 
at  its  attachment  to  the  bone  (Fig.  16).  This  is  the 
most  economical  mode  of  packing  the  muscles,  as 
any  other  practicable  arrangement  would  increase 
the  bulk  of  the  slender  finger. 


Fig.  17. 


The  Muscles  of  the  Right  Eye.  A,  superior  straight  ,•  B,  superior  oblique  passing 
through  a  pulley,  D  ;  G,  inferior  oblique  ;  H,  external  straight,  and,  back  of  it,  the 
internal  straight  muscle. 

Since  the  tendon  cannot  always  pull  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  desired  motion,  some  contrivance  is 
necessary  to  meet  the  want.  The  tendon  (B)  be- 
longing to  one  of  the  muscles  of  the  eye,  for 
example,  passes  through  a  ring  of  cartilage,  and 

thus  a  rotary  motion  is  secured. 

\ 


34 


THE  MUSCLES. 


The  Levers  of  the  Body.* — In  producing  the  mo, 
tions  of  the  body,  the  muscles  use  the  bones  as  levers. 

Flq.  18. 

/        \          •',    \  \    \ 


i.  11.  ILL 

The  three  classes  of  Levers,  and  also  the  foot  as  a  Lever. 

We  see  an  illustration  of  the  first  class  of  levers  in 
the  movements  of  the  head.  The  back  or  front  of 
the  head  is  the  weight  to  be  lifted,  the  backbone  is 

Fig.  19. 


The  hand  as  a  Lever  of  the  third  class. 

the  fulcrum  on  which  the  lever  turns,  and  the 
muscles  at  the  back  or  front  of  the  neck  exert  the 
power  by  which  we  toss  or  bow  the  head. 

*  A  lever  is  a  Ptiff  bar  resting  on  a  point  of  support,  called  the  fulcrum  (FY  and 
having  connected  with  it  a  weight  (W)  to  be  lifted,  dhd  a  poirtr  (P)  to  move  it. 
There  are  three  classes  of  levers  according  to  the  arrangement  of  the  power,  weight, 
and  fulcrum.  In  tho  1st  class,  the  F  is  between  the  P  and  W  ;  in  the  2d,  the  W  is 
between  the  P  and  F  ;  and  in  the  3d,  the  P  is  between  the  W  and  F  (Fig.  18).  A 
pump-handle  is  an  example  of  the  first;  a  lemon-squeezer,  of  the  second;  and  a  pair 
of  fire-tongs,  of  the  third.  See  Physics,  pp.  69—71,  for  a  full  description  of  this 
subject,  and  mauy  illustrations. 


THE  LEVERS  OF  THE  BODY.          35 

When  we  raise  the  body  on  tiptoe,  we  have  an 
instance  of  the  second  class.  Here,  cur  toes  resting 
on  the  ground  form  the  fulcrum,  the  muscles  of  the 
calf  (gas-troc-ne-mi-us,,/,  and  so-le-us,  Fig.  14),  acting 
through  the  tendon  of  the  heel,*  are  the  power,  and 
the  weight  is  borne  by  the  ankle  joint. 

An  illustration  of  the  third  class  is  found  in  lifting 
the  hand  from  the  elbow.  The  hand  is  the  weight, 
the  elbow  the  fulcrum,  and  the  power  is  applied  by 
the  biceps  muscle  at  its  attachment  to  the  radius. 
(A,  Fig.  19.)  In  this  form  of  the  lever  there  is  a  great 
loss  of  force,  because  it  is  applied  at  such  a  distance 
from  the  weight,  but  there  is  a  gain  of  velocity,  since 
the  hand  moves  so  far  by  such  a  slight  contraction 
of  the  muscle.  The  hand  is  required  to  perform 
quick  motions,  and  therefore  this  mode  of  attach- 
ment is  wisely  adopted. 

The  nearer  the  power  is  applied  to  the  resistance, 
the  more  easily  the  work  is  done.  In  the  lower 
jaw,  for  example,  the  jaw  is  the  weight,  the  fulcrum 
is  the  hinge- joint  at  the  back,  and  the  muscles  (tem- 
poral, d,  and  the  mas'-se-ter,  e,  Fig.  14)  on  each  side 
are  the  power,  f  They  act  much  closer  to  the  resist- 


*  This  is  called  the  Tendon  of  Achilles  (k,  Fig.  14),  and  is  so  named  because,  as 
the  fable  runs,  when  Achilles  was  an  infant  his  mother  held  him  by  the  heel  while 
she  dipped  him  in  the  River  Styx,  whose  water  had  the  power  of  rendering  one 
invulnerable  to  any  weapon.  His  heel,  not  being  wet,  was  therefore  his  weak 
point,  and  here  Paris,  at  last,  directed  the  fatal  arrow  which  killed  the  famous 
hero.—"  This  tendon  will  bear  1000  Ibs.  weight  before  it  will  break."1— Mapother. 

The  horse  is  said  to  be  "  hamstrung  "  and  so  rendered  useless,  when  the  Tendon 
of  Achilles  is  cut. 

t  We  may  feel  the  contraction  of  the  masseter  by  placing  our  hand  on  the  face 
when  we  work  the  jaw,  while  the  temporal  can  be  readily  detected  by  putting  the 
fingers  on  the  temple  while  we  are  chewing.  The  tendon  of  the  muscle  (digastric) 
—one  of  thoi?e  which  open  the  jaw— passes  through  a  pulley  (c,  Fig.  14)  somewhat 
like  the  one  in  the  eye. 


36  THE  MUSCLES. 

ance  than  those  in  the  hand,  since  here  we  desire 

force,  and  there  speed. 

The  Enlargement  of  the  Bones  at  the 
Joints  not  only  affords  greater  surface 
for  the  attachment  of  the  muscles,  as 
we  have  seen,  but  also  enables  them 
to  work  to  better  advantage.  Thus,  in 
Fig.  20  it  is  evident  that  a  muscle  act- 
ing in  the  line  fb  would  not  bend  the 
lower  limb  so  easily  as  if  it  were  acting 
in  the  line  fh,  since  in  the  former  case 
its  force  would  be  about  all  spent  in 
drawing  the  bones  more  closely  to- 

thendon         getner?  while  in  the  latter  jt  would  puH 

more  nearly  at  a  right  angle.  Thus  the  tendon  /, 
by  passing  over  the  patella,  which  is  itself  pushed 
out  by  the  protuberance  b  of  the  thigh-bone,  pulls 
at  a  larger  angle,*  and  so  the  leg  is  thrown  for- 
ward with  ease  in  walking  and  with  great  force  in 
kicking. 

How  We  Stand  Erect. — The  joints  play  so  easily, 
and  the  center  of  gravity  in  the  body  is  so  far  above 
the  foot,  that  the  skeleton  cannot  of  itself  hold  our 
bodies  upright.  Thus  it  requires  the  action  of  many 
muscles  to  maintain  this  position.  The  head  so 
rests  upon  the  spine  as  to  tend  to  fall  in  front,  but 
the  muscles  of  the  neck  steady  it  in  its  place,  f  The 

*  The  chief  use  of  the  processes  of  the  pplne  (Fig.  6)  and  other  bones  Is.  in  the 
same  way,  to  throw  out  the  point  on  which  the  power  acts  as  far  from  the  fulcrum 
as  possible.  The  projections  of  the  ulna  ("  funny-bone ")  behind  the  elbow,  and 
that  of  the  heel-bone  to  which  the  Tendon  of  Achilles  is  attached,  are  excellent 
illustrations  (Fig.  1). 

T  In  animals  the  jaws  are  BO  heavy,  and  the  place  where  the  head  and  spine  join 
is  so  far  back,  that  there  can  be  no  balance  as  there  is  in  man.  There  are  therefore 


HOW  WE   STAND  ERECT. 


37 


S1- 


\\ 


hips  incline  forward,  but  are  held  erect 
by  the  strong  muscles  of  the  back.  The 
trunk  is  nicely  balanced  on  the  head  of 
the  thigh-bones.  The  great  muscles  of 
the  thigh  acting  over  the  knee-pan  tend 
to  bend  the  body  forward,  but  the  mus- 
cles of  the  calf  neutralize  this  action. 
The  ankle,  the  knee,  and  the  hip  lie 
in  nearly  the  same  line,  and  thus  the 
weight  of  the  body  rests  directly  on  the 
key-stone  of  the  arch  of  the  foot.  So 
perfectly  do  these  muscles  act  that  we 
never  think  of  them  until  science  calls 
our  attention  to  the  subject,  and  yet  to 
acquire  the  necessary  skill  to  use  them 
in  our  infancy  needed  patient  lessons, 
much  time,  and  many  hard  knocks. 

How  We  Walk.  —  Walking  is  as  com- 
plex an  act  as  standing.    It  is  really  a 
perilous    performance,    which    has   be- 
come   safe    only   because   of    constant 
practice.    We  see  how  violent  it  is  when 
we  run  against  a  post  in  the  dark,  and 
find  with  what  headlong  force  we  were 
hurling  ourselves  forward.    Holmes  has 
well  defined  walking  as  a  perpetual  falling  with  a 
constant  self-recovery.      Standing  on  one  foot  we 
let  the  body  fall  forward,  and  swing  the  other  leg 
ahead  like  a  pendulum.    Planting  that  foot  on  the 


large  muscles  in  their  necks.  We  readily  find  that  we  have  none  if  we  get  on  "  all 
fours  "  and  try  to  hold  up  the  head.  On  the  other  hand,  gorillas  and  apes  cannot 
stand  up  erect  like  man.  Their  head,  trunk,  legs,  etc.,  are  not  balanced  by  muscles, 
so  as  to  be  in  line  with  one  another. 


\ 


Action  of  the 
Muscles  which 
keep  the  body 


38  THE  MUSCLES. 

ground,  to  save  the  body  from  falling  further,  we 
then  swing  the  first  foot  forward  again  to  repeat  the 
same  operation.* 

The  shorter  the  pendulum,  the  more  rapidly  it 
vibrates  ;  and  so  short-legged  people  take  quicker 
and  shorter  steps  than  long-legged  ones.f  We  are 
shorter  when  walking  than  when  standing  still, 
because  of  this  falling  forward  to  take  a  step  in 
advance.  J 

In  running,  we  incline  the  body  more,  and  so,  as 
it  were,  fall  faster.  When  we  walk,  one  foot  is  on 
the  ground  all  the  time,  and  there  is  an  instant  when 
both  feet  are  planted  upon  it ;  but  in  running  there 
is  an  interval  of  time  in  each  step  when  both  feet 
are  off  the  ground,  and  the  body  is  wholly  unsup- 
ported. As  we  step  alternately  with  the  feet,  we  are 
inclined  to  turn  the  body  first  to  one  side  and  then 
to  the  other.  This  movement  is  sometimes  coun- 
terbalanced by  swinging  the  hand  on  the  opposite 
side.  § 

*  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  one  side  of  the  body  tends  to  out- walk  the  other ;  and  so, 
when  a  man  is  lost  in  the  woods,  he  often  goes  in  a  circle,  and  at  last  comes  round  to 
the  spot  whence  he  started. 

t  In  this  respect.  Tom  Thumb  was  to  Magrath,  whoso  skeleton,  eight  and  one- 
half  feet  high,  is  now  in  the  Dublin  Museum,  what  a  little,  fast-ticking,  French 
mantel-clock  is  to  a  big,  old-fashioned,  upright,  corner  time-piece. 

$  Women  find  that  a  gown  that  will  swing  clear  of  the  ground  when  they  are 
standing  still,  will  drag  the  street  when  they  are  walking.  The  length  of  the  step 
may  be  increased  by  muscular  effort  as  when  a  line  of  soldiers  keep  step  in  spite 
of  their  having  legs  of  different  lensrth?.  Such  a  mode  of  walking  is  necessarily 
fatiiruinir. 

§  "In  ordinary  walking  the  speed  is  nearly  four  miles  an  hour,  and  can  be  kept 
up  for  a  long  period.  But  exercise  and  a  special  aptitude  for  it  enable  some  men  to 
walk  great  distances  in  a  relatively  short  space  of  time.  Trained  walkers  have  gone 
seventy-five  miles  in  twenty  hours,  and  walked  the  distance  of  thirty-seven  miles  at 
the  rate  of  five  miles  an  hour.  The  mountaineers  of  the  Alps  are  generally  good 
walkers,  and  some  of  them  are  not  less  remarkable  for  endurance  than  for  speed. 
Jacques  Balmat,  who  was  the  first  to  reach  the  summit  of  Mont  Blanc,  at  sixteen 
years  of  age  could  walk  from  the  hamlet  of  the  P&erins  to  the  mountain  of  La  Cdte 


NECESSITY  OF  EXERCISE.  39 

The  Muscular  Sense, — When  we  lift  an  object,  we 
feel  a  sensation  of  weight,  which  we  can  compare 
with  that  experienced  in  lifting  another  body.*  By 
care  we  may  cultivate  this  sense  so  as  to  form  a 
very  precise  estimate  of  the  weight  of  a  body  by 
balancing  it  in  the  hand.  The  muscular  sense  is 
useful  to  us  in  many  ways.  It  guides  us  in  standing 
or  moving.  We  gratify  it  when  we  walk  erect  and 
with  an  elastic  step,  and  by  dancing,  jumping, 
skating,  and  gymnastic  exercises. 

Necessity  of  Exercise. — The  effect  of  exercise  upon 
a  muscle  is  very  marked,  f  By  use  it  grows  larger, 
and  becomes  hard,  compact,  and  darker-colored ;  by 
disuse  it  decreases  in  size,  and  becomes  soft,  flabby, 
and  pale. 

Violent  exercise,  however,  is  injurious,  since  we 


in  two  hours,— a  distance  which  the  best  trained  travelers  required  from  five  to  six 
hours  to  get  over.  At  the  time  of  his  last  attempt  to  reach  the  top  of  Mont  Blanc, 
this  same  guide,  then  twenty  years  old,  passed  six  days  and  four  nights  without 
sleeping  or  reposing  a  single  moment.  One  of  his  sons,  Edward  Balmat,  left  Paris 
to  join  his  regiment  at  Genoa  ;  he  reached  Chamonix  the  fifth  day  at  evening,  having 
walked  340  miles.  After  resting  two  days,  he  set  off  again  for  Genoa,  where  he 
arrived  in  two  days.  Several  years  afterward,  this  same  man  left  the  baths  at 
Loueche  at  two  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  reached  Chamonix  at  nine  in  the  even- 
ing, having  walked  a  distance  equal  to  about  seventy-five  miles  in  nineteen  hours. 
In  1844,  an  old  guide  of  De  Saussure,  eighty  years  old,  left  the  hamlet  of  Prats,  in  the 
valley  of  Chamonix,  in  the  afternoon,  and  reached  the  Grand  Mulcts  at  ten  in  the 
evening ;  then,  after  resting  some  hours,  he  climbed  the  glacier  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
Grand  Plateau,  which  has  an  altitude  of  about  13,000  feet,  and  then  returned  to  his 
village  without  stopping."—  Wonders  of  the  Body. 

*  If  a  small  ivory  ball  bo  allowed  to  roll  down  the  cheek  toward  the  lips,  it  will 
appear  to  increase  in  weight.  In  general,  the  more  sensitive  parts  of  the  body 
recognize  smaller  differences  in  weight,  and  the  right  hand  is  more  accurate  than 
the  left.  We  are  very  apt,  however,  to  judge  of  the  weight  of  a  body  from  pre- 
vious conceptions.  Thus,  shortly  after  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  discovered  the  metal 
potassium,  he  placed  a  piece  of  it  in  Dr.  Pierson's  hand,  who  exclaimed,  "  Bless  me ! 
How  heavy  it  is  ! "  Eeally.  however,  potassium  is  so  light  that  it  will  float  on  water 
like  cork. 

t  The  greater  size  of  the  breast  (pectoral  muscle)  of  a  pigeon,  as  compared  with 
that  of  a  duck,  shows  how  muscle  increases  with  use.  The  breast  of  a  chicken  is 
white  because  it  is  not  used  for  flight,  and  therefore  gets  little  blood. 


40  THE  MUSCLES. 

then  tear  down  faster  than  nature  can  build  up. 
Feats  of  strength  are  not  only  hurtful,  but  dan- 
gerous. Often  the  muscles  are  strained  or  ruptured, 
and  blood-vessels  burst  in  the  effort  to  outdo  one's 
companions.* 

Two  thousand  years  ago,  Isocrates,  the  Greek 
rhetorician,  said,  "  Exercise  for  health,  not  for 
strength."  The  cultivation  of  muscle  for  its  own 
sake  is  a  return  to  barbarism,  while  it  enfeebles  the 
mind,  and  ultimately  the  body.  The  ancient  gym- 
nasts are  said  to  have  become  prematurely  old,  and 
the  trained  performers  of  our  own  day  soon  suffer 
from  the  strain  they  put  upon  their  muscular  sys- 
tem. Few  men  have  vigor  sufficient  to  become  both 
athletes  and  scholars.  Exercise  should,  therefore, 
merely  supplement  the  deficiency  of  our  usual  em- 
ployment. A  sedentary  life  needs  daily,  moderate 
exercise,  which  always  stops  short  of  fatigue.  This 
is  a  law  of  health. 

No  education  is  complete  which  fails  to  provide 
for  the  development  of  the  muscles.  Recesses 
should  be  as  strictly  devoted  to  play  as  study-hours 
are  to  work.  Were  gymnastics  or  calisthenics  as 
regular  an  exercise  as  grammar  or  arithmetic,  fewer 
pupils  would  be  compelled  to  leave  school  on  account 
of  ill  health  ;  while  spinal  curvatures,  weak  backs, 
and  ungraceful  gaits  would  no  longer  characterize 
so  many  of  our  best  institutions. 

Time  for  Exercise. — We  should  not  exercise  after 
long  abstinence  from  food,  nor  immediately  after  a 

*  Instances  have  been  known  of  children  falling  dead  from  having  carried  to 
excess  so  pleasant  and  healthful  an  amusement  as  jumping  the  rope,  and  of  persons 
rupturing  the  Tendon  of  Achilles  in  dancing. 


WHAT  KIND   OF  EXERCISE  TO  TAKE.  41 

meal,  unless  the  meal  or  the  exercise  be  very  light. 
There  is  an  old-fashioned  prejudice  in  favor  of  exer- 
cise before  breakfast — an  hour  suited  to  the  strong 
and  healthy,  but  entirely  unfitted  to  the  weak  and 
delicate.  On  first  rising  in  the  morning,  the  pulse 
13  low,  the  skin  relaxed,  and  the  system  susceptible 
to  cold.  Feeble  persons,  therefore,  need  to  be  braced 
with  food  before  they  brave  the  out-door  air. 

What  Kind  of  Exercise  to  Take. — For  children, 
games  are  unequalled.  Walking,  the  universal 
exercise,*  is  beneficial,  as  it  takes  one  into  the  open 
air  and  sunlight.  Running  is  better,  since  it  em- 
ploys more  muscles,  but  must  not  be  pushed  to 
excess,  as  it  taxes  the  heart,  and  may  lead  to  disease 
of  that  organ.  Bowing  is  more  effectual  in  its  gen- 
eral development  of  the  system.  Swimming  employs 
the  _muscles  of  the  whole  body,  and  is  a  valuable 
acquirement,  as  it  may  be  the  means  of  saving  life. 
Horseback  riding  is  a  fine  accomplishment,  and 
refreshes  mind  and  body  alike.  Gymnastic  or  calis- 
thenic  exercises,  when  carefully  selected,  and  not 
indulged  immoderately,  bring  into  play  all  the 
muscles  of  the  body,  and  become  preferable  to  any 
other  mode  of  in-door  exercise,  f 

*  The  custom  of  walking,  so  prevalent  in  England,  has  doubtless  much  to  do  with 
the  superior  physique  of  its  people.  It  is  considered  nothing  for  a  woman  to  take 
a  walk  of  eight  or  ten  miles,  and  long  pedestrian  excursions  are  made  to  all  parts  of 
the  country.  The  benefits  which  accrue  from  such  an  open  air  life  are  sadly  needed 
by  the  women  of  our  own  land.  A  walk  of  half-a-dozen  miles  should  be  a  pleas- 
ant recreation  for  any  healthy  person. 

t  The  employment  of  the  muscles  in  exercise  not  only  benefits  their  especial  etruc- 
ture,  but  it  acts  on  the  whole  system.  When  the  muscles  are  put  in  acrion,  the 
capillary  blood-vessels  with  which  they  are  supplied  become  more  rapidly  charged 
with  blood,  and  active  changes  take  phice,  not  only  in  the  muscles,  but  in  all  the 
surrounding  tissues.  The  heart  is  required  to  supply  more  blood,  and  accordingly 
beats  more  rapidly  in  order  to  meet  the  demand.  A.  larger  quantity  of  blood  is  sent 
through  the  lungs,  and  larger  supplies  of  oxygen  are  taken  in  and  carried  to  the 


42  THE  MUSCLES. 

The  Wonders  of  the  Muscles. — The  grace,  ease, 
and  rapidity  with  which  the  muscles  contract  are 
astonishing.  By  practice,  they  acquire  a  facility 
which  we  call  mechanical.  The  voice  may  utter 
1500  letters  in  a  minute,  yet  each  requires  a  distinct 
position  of  the  vocal  organs.  We  train  the  muscles 
of  the  fingers  till  they  glide  over  the  keys  of  the 
piano,  executing  the  most  exquisite  and  difficult 
harmony.  In  writing,  each  letter  is  formed  by  its 
peculiar  motions,  yet  we  make  them  so  uncon- 
sciously that  a  skilful  penman  will  describe  beauti- 
ful curves  while  thinking  only  of  the  idea  that  the 
sentence  is  to  express.  The  mind  of  the  violinist  is 
upon  the  music  which  his  right  hand  is  executing, 
while  his  left  determines  the  length  of  the  string 
and  the  character  of  each  note  so  carefully  that  not 
a  false  sound  is  heard,  although  the  variation  of  a 
hair's  breadth  would  cause  a  discord.  In  the  arm  of 
a  blacksmith,  the  biceps  muscle  may  grow  into  the 
solidity  almost  of  a  club  ;  the  hand  of  a  prize-fighter 
will  strike  a  blow  like  a  sledge-hammer :  while  the 
engraver  traces  lines  invisible  to  the  naked  eye, 


various  tissues.  The  oxygen,  by  combining  with  the  carbon  of  the  blood  and  the 
tissues,  engenders  a  larger  quantity  of  heat,  which  produces  an  action  on  the  skin, 
in  order  that  the  superfluous  warmth  may  be  disposed  of.  The  skin  is  thus  exer- 
cised, as  it  were,  and  the  sudoriparous  and  sebaceous  glands  are  set  at  work.  The 
lungs  and  skin  are  brought  into  operation,  and  the  lungs  throw  off  large  quantities 
of  carbonic  acid,  and  the  skin  large  quantities  of  water,  containing  in  solution  mat- 
ters which,  if  retained,  would  produce  disease  in  the  body.  Wherever  the  blood  is 
pent,  changes  of  a  healthful  character  occur.  The  brain  and  the  rest  of  the  nervous 
system  are  invigorated,  the  stomach  has  its  powers  of  digestion  improved,  and  the 
liver,  pancreas,  and  other  organs  perform  their  functions  with  more  vigor.  By 
v.-ant  of  exercise,  the  constituents  of  the  food  which  pass  into  the  blood  are  not  oxi- 
dized, and  product*  which  produce  disease  are  engendered.  The  introduction  of 
fresh  supplies  of  oxygen  induced  by  exercise  oxidizes  these  products,  and  renders 
them  harmless ;  all  other  things  b.:ing  the  same,  it  may  be  laid  down  ns  a  rule  that 
those  who  take  the  most  exercise  in  the  open  air  will  live  the  longest.  —Lankester. 


DISEASES,    ETC.  43 

and  the  fingers  of  the  blind  acquire  a  delicacy  that 
almost  supplies  the  place  of  the  missing  sense. 

Diseases,  etc.  —  1.  ST.  VITUS'S  DANCE  is  a  disease 
of  the  voluntary  muscles,  whereby  they  are  in  fre- 
quent, irregular,  and  spasmodic  motion  beyond  the 
control  of  the  will.  All  causes  of  excitement,  and 
especially  of  fear,  should  be  avoided,  and  the  gen- 
eral health  of  the  patient  invigorated,  as  this  disease 
is  closely  connected  with  a  derangement  of  the 
nervous  system. 

2.  CONVULSIONS  are  an  involuntary  contraction  of 
the  muscles.     Consciousness  is  wanting,  while  the 
limbs  may  be  stiff  or  in  spasmodic  action.      (See 
Appendix.) 

3.  LOCKED-JAW  is  a  disease  in   which  there  are 
spasms  and  a  contraction  of  the  muscles,  usually 
beginning  in  the  lower  jaw.     It  is    serious,  often 
fatal,  yet  it  is  sometimes  caused  by  as  trivial  an 
injury  as  the  stroke  of  a  whip-lash,  the  lodgement 
of  a  bone  in  the  throat,  a  fish-hook  in  the  ringer,  or 
the  puncture  of  the  sole  of  the  foot  by  a  tack  or 
a  nail. 

4.  GOUT  is  an  acute  pain  located  chiefly  in  the 
small  joints  of  the  foot,  especially  those  of  the  great 
toe,  which  become  swollen  and  extremely  sensitive. 
It  is  generally  brought  on  by  high  living. 

5.  RHEUMATISM    affects    mainly    the   connective", 
white,   fibrous  tissue  of   the  larger  joints.    While 
gout  is  the  punishment  of  the  rich  who  live  luxu- 
riously and  indolently,  rheumatism  afflicts  the  poor 
and  the  rich  alike.     There  are  two  common  forms 
of  rheumatism — the  inflammatory  or  acute,  and  the 


44  THE  MUSCLES. 

chronic.  The  latter  is  of  long  continuance ;  the 
former  terminates  more  speedily.  The  acute  form 
is  probably  a  disease  of  the  blood,  which  carries 
with  it  some  poisonous  matter  that  is  deposited 
where  the  fibrous  tissue  is  most  abundant. 

The  disease  flies  from  one  joint  to  another  in  the 
most  unaccountable  manner,  and  the  pain  caused 
by  even  the  slightest  motion  deprives  the  sufferer 
of  the  use  of  the  disabled  part  and  its  muscles.  The 
chief  danger  to  be  feared  is  the  possibility  of  its 
going  to  the  heart.  All  those  remedies,  therefore, 
which  would  throw  it  from  the  surface  are  to  be 
avoided.  There  is  no  generally-accepted  mode  of 
treating  the  disease.  Warm  fomentations  are 
usually  grateful.  Chronic  rheumatism — the  result 
of  repeated  attacks  of  the  acute — leads  to  great  suf- 
fering, and  oftentimes  to  disorganization  of  the 
joints,  and  an  interference  with  the  movements  of 
the  heart. 

6..  LUMBAGO  is  a.  rheumatic  pain  in  the  muscles  of 
the  small  of  the  back.*  It  may  be  so  moderate  as  to 
produce  only  a  "  lame  back,"  or  so  severe  as  to  dis- 
able, as  in  the  case  of  a  "  crick  in  the  back."  Strong 
swimmers  who  sometimes  suddenly  drown  without 
apparent  cause  are  supposed  to  be  seized  in  this 
way. 

7.  A   GANGLION,  or    what    is    vulgarly   called    a 

*  Lumbago  is  really  a  form  of  myalgia,  a  disease  which  has  its  seat  in  the  muscle?, 
and  may  thus  affect  any  part  of  the  body.  Doubtless  much  of  what  is  commonly 
called  "liver"  or  "kidney  complaint  "  is  only,  in  one  case,  myalgfa  of  the  chest  or 
abdominal  walls  near  the  liver,  or,  in  the  other,  of  the  back  and  loins  near  the  kid- 
neys! Chronic  liver  disease  is  comparatively  rare  in  the  northern  States,  and  pain 
in  the  side  is  not  a  prominent  symptom,  while  certain  diseases  of  the  kidneys,  which 
are  as  surely  fatal  as  pulmonary  consumption,  arc  not  attended  by  pain  in  the  back 
opposite  these  organs.— Wey. 


PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS.  45 

"weak"  or  " weeping "  sinew,  is  a  swelling  of  a 
bursa.*  It  sometimes  becomes  so  distended  by  fluid 
as  to  be  mistaken  for  bone.  If  on  binding  some- 
thing hard  upon  it  for  a  few  days  it  does  not  disap- 
pear, a  physician  will  remove  the  liquid  by  means 
of  a  hypodermic  syringe,  or  perhaps  "  scatter"  it  by 
an  external  application  of  iodine. 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  class  of  lever  is  the  foot  when  we  lift  a  weight  on  the 
toes? 

2.  Explain  the  movement  of  the  body  backward  and  forward,  when 
resting  upon  the  thigh-bone  as  a  fulcrum. 

8.  What  class  of  lever  do  we  use  when  we  lift  the  foot  while  sitting 
down  ? 

4.  Explain  the  swing  of  the  arm  from  the  shoulder. 

5.  What  class  of  lever  is  us3d  in  bending  our  fingers? 

6.  What  class  of  lever  is  our  foot  when  we  tap  the  ground  with 
our  toes? 

7.  What  class  of  lever  do  we  use  when  we  raise  ourselves  from  a 
stooping  position  ? 

8.  What  class  of  lever  is  the  foot  when  we  walk  ? 

9.  Why  can  we  raise  a  heavier  weight  with  our  hand  when  lifting 
from  the  elbow  than  from  the  shoulder  ? 

10.  What  class  of  lever  do  we  employ  when  we  are  hopping,  the 
thigh  bone  being  bsnt  up  toward  the  body  and  not  used? 

11.  Describe  the  motions  of  the  bones  when  we  are  using  a  gimlet. 

12.  Why  do  we  tire  when  we  stand  erect? 

13.  Why  does  it  rest  us  to  change  our  work  ? 

*  A  bursa  is  a  small  sack  containing  a  lubricating  fluid  to  prevent  friction  where 
tendons  play  over  hard  surfaces.  There  is  one  shaped  like  an  hour-glass  on  the 
wrist,  just  at  the  edge  of  the  palm.  By  pressing  back  the  liquid  it  contains,  this 
bursa  may  be  clearly  seen. 


46  THE   MUSCLES. 

14.  Why  and  when  is  dancing  a  beneficial  exercise  ? 

15.  Why  can  we  exert  greater  force  with  the  back  teeth  than  \vith 
the  front  ones  V 

16.  Why  do  we  lean  forward  when  we  wish  to  rise  from  a  chair  ? 

17.  Why  does  the  projection  of  the  heel-bone  make  walking  easier  ? 

18.  Does  a  horse  travel  with  less  fatigue  over  a  flat  than  a  hilly 
country  ? 

19.  Can  you  move  your  upper  jaw  ? 

20.  Are  people  naturally  right  or  left-handed  ? 

21.  Why  can  so  few  persons  move  their  ears  by  the  muscles? 

22.  Is  the  blacksmith's  right  arm  healthier  than  the  left? 

23.  Boys  often,  though  foolishly,  thrust  a  pin  into  the  flesh  just 
above  the  knee.     Why  is  it  not  painful  ? 

24.  Will  ten- minutes  practice  in  a  gymnasium  answer  for  a  day's 
exercise  ? 

25.  Why  would  an  elastic  tendon  be  unfitted  to  transmit  the  motion 
of  a  muscle  ? 

26.  When  one  is  struck  violently  on  the  head,  why  does  he  instantly 
fall? 

27.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  difference  between  light  and  dark  me?.t 
in  a  fowl? 


III. 
THE    SKIN. 


—  A  protection  from  the  outer  world,  it  is  our  only  means  of 
communicating  with  it.  Insensible  itself,  it  is  the  organ  of 
tottch.  It  feels  the  pressure  of  a  hair,  yet  bears  the  -weight 
of  the  body.  It  yields  to  every  motion  of  that  which  it  wraps 
and  holds  in  place.  It  hides  from  view  the  delicate  organs 
within,  yet  the  faintest  tint  of  a  thought  shines  through,  while 
the  soul  paints  upon  it,  as  on  a  canvas,  the  richest  and  rarest 
of  colors. 


BLACKBOARD 


* 

M 

3. 

1.  THE   STBUCTUBK   OP 
TIIK  SKIN. 

2.  THE   HAIR  AND  THE 
NAILS. 

8.  THE  Mucous  MEM-  . 

BBANE. 

4.  THE  TEETH  ...            1 

f  1.  The  Cntis  ;  it?  comp 
1  2.  The  Cuticle:  its  con 
1  8.  The  value  or  the  Cu 
1.  4.  The  Complexion. 

1.  The  Hair  • 

osition  and  character, 
aposition  and  character, 
tide. 

fa.  Description. 
1  b.  Method  of  Growth. 
c.  As  an  instrument  of 
feeling, 
d.  Indestructibility     of 
the  hair, 
'a.  Uses. 
b.  Method  of  gr6wth. 

f  Teeth. 
1.  The  Milk  Teeth. 
2.  The  Permanent  Teeth, 
th. 
ooth  in  the  Jaw. 
eth. 
the  Teeth. 

1  1.  Oil  Glands. 
2.  Perspiratory  Glands. 

ver  of  the   Skin.     (See 
Bathing. 

ra.  General  Principles, 
b.  Linen, 
c.  Cotton, 
d.  Woolen, 
e.  Flannel, 
f.  Color  of  Clothing, 
g.  Structure  of  Clothing 
B.  Insufficient  Clothing. 

2.  The  Nails  • 

11.  The  Structure. 
2.  Connective  Tissue. 
3.  Fat. 

1.  Number  and  kinds  o 
1,  The  two  sets  • 

2.  Structure  of  the  Tee 
3.  The  Setting  of  the  T 
4.  The  Decay  of  the  Te 
5.  The  Preservation  of 

11.  The  two  kinds....- 
2.  The  Perspiration. 
3.  The  Absorbing  Po\ 
Lymphatics.) 

'  1.  About  Washing  and 
2.  The  Reaction. 
3.  Sea-Bathing. 

4.  Clothing            .      • 

5.  THE  GLANDS       .  .        « 

6.  HTGIENE    • 

• 
7.  DISEASES  • 

1.  Erysipelas. 
2.  Dropsy. 
3.  Corn  P. 
4.  In-growing  Nailg. 
5  Warts. 
6.  Chilblain*. 
,  7.  Wens. 

THE    SKIN. 


Skin  is  a  tough,  thin,  close-fitting  garment 
J~  for  the  protection  of  the  tender  flesh.  Its  per- 
fect elasticity  beautifully  adapts  it  to  every  motion 
of  the  body.  We  shall  learn  hereafter  that  it  is 
more  than  a  mere  covering,  being  an  active  organ, 
which  does  its  part  in  the  work  of  keeping  in  order 
the  house  in  which  we  live.  It  oils  itself  to  preserve 
its  smoothness  and  delicacy,  replaces  itself  as  fast 
as  it  wears  out,  and  is  at  once  the  perfection  of  use 
and  beauty. 

1.     STRUCTURE     OF     THE     SKIN. 

Cutis  and  Cuticle. — What  we  commonly  call  the 
skin — viz.,  the  part  raised  by  a  blister — is  only  the 
cuticle  *  or  covering  of  the  cutis  or  true  skin.  The 
latter  is  full  of  nerves  and  blood-vessels,  while  the 
former  neither  bleeds  f  nor  gives  rise  to  pain, 
neither  suffers  from  heat  nor  feels  the  cold. 

The  cuticle  is  composed  of    small,   flat  cells  or 

*  Cutimla,  little  skin.  It  is  often  styled  the  scarf-skin,  and  also  the  epidermis 
(epi,  upon ;  and  derma,  skin). 

t  We  notice  this  in  shaving ;  for  if  a  razor  goes  below  the  cuticle  it  is  followed  by 
pain  and  blood.  So  insensible  is  this  outer  layer  that  we  can  run  a  pin  through  the 
thick  mass  at  the  roots  of  the  nails  without  discomfort. 


A 

A  represents  a  vertical  section  of  the  cuticle.  B,  lateral  view  of  the  cells.  C.  flat  side 
of  scales  like  d,  magnified  250  diameters,  showing  the  nucleated  cells  transformed  into 
broad  scales. 

scales.  These  are  constantly  shed  from  the  surface 
in  the  form  of  scurf,  dandruff,  etc.,  but  are  as  con- 
stantly renewed  from  the  'cutis  *  below. 

Under  the  microscope,  we  can  see  the  round  cells 
of  the  cuticle,  and  how  they  are  flattened  and 
hardened  -as  they  are  forced  to  the  surface.  The 
immense  number  of  these  cells  surpasses  compre- 
hension. In  one  square  inch  of  the  cuticle,  counting 
only  those  in  a  single  layer,  there  are  over  a  bil- 
lion horny  scales,  each  complete  in  itself. — Hart  ing. 

Value  of  the  Cuticle. — In  the  palm  of  the  hand, 
the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  other  parts  especially  liable 
to  injury,  the  cuticle  is  very  thick.  This  is  a  most 
admirable  provision  for  their  protection,  f  By  use,  it 
becomes  callous  and  horny.  The  boy  who  goes  out 
barefoot  for  the  first  time,  "treading  as  if  on  eggs," 

*  We  pee  how  rapidly  this  change  goes  on  by  noticing  how  soon  a  stain  of  any 
kind  disappears  from  the  skin.  A  snake  throws  off  its  cuticle  entire,  and  at  regular 
intervals. 

t  We  can  hold  the  hand  in  strong  brine  with  impunity,  but  the  smart  will  quickly 
tell  us  when  there  is  even  a  scratch  in  the  skin.  In  vaccination,  the  matter  must  be 
inserted  beneath  the  cuticle  to  take  effect.  Doubtless  this  membrane  prevents  many 
poisonous  substances  from  entering  the  system. 


HAIR  AND   NAILS.  51 

can  soon  run  where  he  pleases  among  thistles  and 
over  stones.  The  blacksmith  bandies  hot  iron 
without  pain,  while  the  mason  lays  stones  and 
works  in  lime,  without  scratching  or  corroding  his 
flesh. 

The  Complexion. — In  the  freshly-made  cells  on  the 
lower  side  of  the  cuticle,  is  a  pigment  composed  of 
tiny  grains.*  In  the  varying  tint  of  this  coloring- 
matter,  lies  the  difference  of  hue  between  the  blonde 
and  the  brunette,  the  European  and  the  African. 
In  the  purest  complexion,  there  is  some  of  this  pig- 
ment, which,  however,  disappears  as  the  fresh, 
round,  soft  cells  next  the  cut  is  change  into  the  old, 
flat,  horny  scales  at  the  surface. 

Scars  are  white,  because  this  part  of  the  cuticle  is 
not  restored.  The  sun  has  a  powerful  effect  upon 
the  coloring-matter,  and  so  we  readily  "tan"  on 
exposure  to  its  rays.  If  the  color  gathers  in  spots, 
it  forms  freckles,  f 

2.     HAIR     AND     NAILS. 

The  Hair  and  the  Nails  are  modified  forms  of  the 
cuticle. 


*  These  grains  are  about  55^  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and,  curiously  enough,  do  not 
appear  opaque  but  transparent  and  nearly  colorless.— Marshall. 

t  This  action  of  the  sun  on  the  pigment  of  the  skin  is  very  marked.  Even  among 
the  Africans,  the  skin  is  observed  to  lose  its  intense  black  color  in  those  who  live  for 
many  months  in  the  shades  of  the  forest.  It  is  said  that  Asiatic  and  African  women 
confined  within  the  walls  of  the  harem,  and  thus  secluded  from  the  sun,  are  as  fair  as 
Europeans.  Among  the  Jews  who  have  settled  in  Northern  Europe,  are  many  of 
light  complexion,  while  those  who  live  in  India  are  as  dark  as  the  Hindoos.  The 
black  pigment  has  been  known  to  disappear  during  severe  illness,  and  a  lighter  color 
to  be  developed  in  its  place.  Among  the  negroes,  are  sometimes  found  people  who 
have  no  complexion,  i.  e.,  there  is  no  coloring-matter  in  their  skin,  hair,  or  the  iria 
of  their  eyes.  These  persons  are  called  Albinos. 


THE  SKIN. 


A  hair  magnified  600 
diameters.  S,  the  sac  (fol- 
licle): P,  the  papilla,  show- 
ing the  cells  and  Ute  blood- 
vessels (V). 


The  Hair  is  a  protection  from 
heat  and  cold,  and  shields  the 
head  from  blows.  It  is  found  on 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  body,  except 
the  palms  of  the  hands  and  the 
soles  of  the  feet.  The  outside  of  a 
hair  is  hard  and  compact,  and  con- 
sists of  a  layer  of  colorless  scales, 
which  overlie  one  another  like  the 
shingles  of  a  house ;  the  interior 
is  porous,*  and  probably  conveys 
the  liquids  by  which  it  is  nour- 
ished. 

Each  hair  grows  from  a  tiny 
bulb  (papilla),  which  is  an  elevation  of  the  cut  is  at 
the  bottom  of  a  little  hollow  in  the  skin.  From  the 
surface  of  this  bulb,  the  hair  is  produced,  like  the 
cuticle,  by  the  constant  formation  of  new  cells  at 
the  bottom.  When  the  hair  is  pulled  out,  this  bulb, 
if  uninjured,  will  produce  a  new  one ;  but,  when 
once  destroyed,  it  will  never  grow  again,  f  The  hair 
has  been  known  to  whiten  in  a  single  night  by  fear, 
fright,  or  nervous  excitement.  When  the  color  has 
once  changed,  it  cannot  be  restored.  J 

*  In  order  to  examine  a  hair,  it  should  he  pat  on  the  elide  of  the  microscope,  and 
covered  with  a  thin  glass,  while  a  few  drops  of  alcohol  are  allowed  to  flow  hetween 
the  cover  and  the  elide.  This  causes  the  air,  which  fills  the  hair  and  prevents  oar 
seeing  its  structure,  to  escape. 

t  The  hair  is  said  to  grow  after  death.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  by  the  shrink- 
ing of  the  skin  the  part  below  the  surface  is  caused  to  project,  which  is  especially 
noticeable  in  the  heard. 

$  Hair  dyes  or  so-called  "  hair  restorers  "  are  almost  invariably  deleterious  sub- 
stances, depending  for  their  coloring  properties  upon  the  action  of  lead  or  lunar 
caustic.  Frequent  instances  of  hair-poisoning  have  occurred,  owing  to  the  com- 
mon use  of  such  dangerous  nrticles.  If  the  growth  of  the  hair  be  impaired,  tho 
general  constitution  or  the  skin  needs  treatment.  This  is  the  work  of  a  skillful 


THE  NAILS. 


53 


Fig 


Wherever  hair  exists,  tiny  muscles  are  found,  in- 
terlaced among  the  fibers  of  the  skin.  These,  when 
contracting  under  the  influ- 
ence of  cold  or  electricity, 
pucker  up  the  skin,  and  cause 
the  hair  to  stand  on  end.* 
The  hairs  themselves  are  des- 
titute of  feeling.  Nerves, 
however,  are  found  in  the 
hollows  in  which  the  hair  is 
rooted,  and  so  one  feels  pain 
when  it  is  pulled,  f  Thus 
the  insensible  hairs  become 
wonderfully  delicate  instru- 
ments to  convey  an  impres- 
sion of  even  the  slightest 
touch. 

Next  to  tho  teeth  and 
bones,  the  hair  is  the  least 
destructible  part  of  the  body, 
and  its  color  is  often  pre- 
served for  many  years  after 
the  other  portions  have  gone 
to  decay.  1 


A,  a  perspiratory  tube  with  its 
gland ;  B.  a  hair  with  a  muscle 
and  two  oil-glands :  C,  cuticle  ; 
D,  the  papilla ;  and  E,  fat-cells. 


physician,  and  not  of  a  patent  remedy.  Dame  Fashion  has  her  repentant  freaks  aa 
well  as  her  ruinous  follies,  and  it  is  a  healthful  sign  that  the  era  of  universal  hair- 
dyeing  has  been  blotted  out  from  her  present  calendar,  and  the  gray  hairs  of  age  are 
now  honored  with  the  highest  place  in  "  style"  as  well  as  in  good  sense  and  clean- 
liness. 

*  In  horses  and  other  animals  which  are  able  to  shake  the  whole  skin,  to  drive 
away  the  flies,  this  muscular  tissue  is  mnch  more  fully  developed  than  in  man. 

t  These  nerves  are  especially  abundant  in  the  whiskers  of  the  cat,  which  are  used 
as  feelers. 

J  Fine  downy  hairs  so  general  upon  the  body  have  been  detected  in  the  little 
fragments  of  skin  found  beneath  the  heads  of  the  nails  by  which,  centuries  ago.  cer- 
tain robbers  were  fastened  to  the  church  doors,  as  a  punishment  for  their  sacrilege. 


54  THE  SKIN. 

The  Nails  protect  the  ends  of  the  tender  finger,  and 
toe,  and  give  us  power  more  firmly  to  grasp  and 
easily  to  pick  up  any  object  we  may  desire.  They 
enable  us  to  perform  a  hundred  little,  mechanical 
acts  which  else  were  impossible.  At  the  same  time, 
their  delicate  color  and  beautiful  outline  give  a  finish 
of  ornament  to  that  exquisite  instrument,  the  hand. 
The  nail  is  firmly  set  in  a  groove  (matrix)  in  the 
cuticle,  from  which  it  grows  at  the  root  in  length  * 
and  from  beneath  in  thickness.  So  long  as  the  ma- 
trix at  the  root  is  uninjured,  the  nail  will  be  replaced 
after  any  accident. 


3.     THE     MUCOUS     MEMBRANE. 


Structure. — At  the  edges  of  the  openings  into  the 
body,  the  skin  seems  to  stop  and  give  place  to  a 
tissue  which  is  redder,  more  sensitive,  more  liable  to 
bleed,  and  is  moistened  by  a  fluid,  or  mucus  as  it  is 
called.  Keally,  however,  the  skin  does  not  cease, 
but  passes  into  a  more  delicate  covering  of  the  same 
general  composition,  viz.,  an  outer,  hard,  bloodless, 
insensible  layer,  and  an  inner,  soft,  sanguine,  ner- 
vous one.  f  Thus  every  part  of  the  body  is  contained 
in  a  kind  of  double  bag,  made  of  the  tough  skin  on 
the  outside;  and  the  tender  mucous  membrane  on 
the  inside. 

Connective  Tissue. — The  cutis  and  the  correspond- 

*  By  making  a  little  mark  on  the  nail  near  the  root  we  can  see  week  hy  weok 
how  rapidly  this  process  goes  on,  and  PO  form  pome  Idea  of  what  a  multitude  of  cells 
mnpt  be  transformed  into  the  horny  matter  of  the  nail. 

•f  With  a  dull  knife,  we  can  scrape  from  the  mucous  membrane  which  lines  the 
mouth  some  of  the  cuticle  for  examination  under  the  microscope.  In  a  similar  way, 
we  can  obtain  cuticle  from  the  surface  of  the  body  for  study  and  comparison. 


THE  MUCOUS  MEMBRANE.  55 

ing  layer  of  the  mucous  membrane  consist  chiefly  of 
a  fibrous  substance  interlaced  like  felt.  It  is  called 
connective  tissue,  because  it  connects  all  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  body.  It  spreads  from  the  cutis, 
invests  muscles,  bones,  and  cartilages,  and  thence 
passes  into  the  mucous  membrane.  So  thoroughly 
does  it  permeate  the  body,  that,  if  the  other  tissues 
were  destroyed,  it  would  give  a  perfect  model  of 
every  organ.*  It  can  be  seen  in  a  piece  of  meat  as 
a  delicate  substance  lying  between  the  layers  of 
muscle,  where  it  serves  to  bind  together  the  numer- 
ous fibers  of  which  they  are  composed,  f 

Connective  tissue  yields  gelatine  on  boiling,  and 
is  the  part  which  tans  when  hides  are  manufactured 
into  leather.  It  is  very  elastic,  so  that  when  you 
remove  your  finger  after  pressing  upon  the  skin,  no 
indentation  is  left.  J  It  varies  greatly  in  character, 
— from  the  mucous  membrane,  where  it  is  soft  and 
tender,  to  the  ligaments  and  tendons  which  it  largely 
composes, "where  it  is  strong  and  dense,  § 

*  It  is  curious  to  notice  how  our  body  is  wrapped  in  membrane.  On  the  outside, 
is  the  skin  protecting  from  exterior  injury,  and,  on  the  inside,  is  the  mucous  mem- 
brane reaching  from  the  lips  to  the  innermost  air-cell  of  the  lungs.  Every  organ  is 
enveloped  in  its  membrane.  Every  bone  has  its  sheath.  Every  socket  is  lined.  Even 
the  separate  fibers  of  muscles  have  their  covering  tissue.  The  brain  and  the  spinal 
cord  are  triply  wrapped,  while  the  eye  is  only  a  membranous  globe  filled  with  fluid. 
These  membranes  protect  and  support  the  organ?  they  enfold,  but,  with  that  wise 
economy  so  characteristic  of  nature  everywhere,  they  have  also  an  important  func- 
tion to  perform.  They  are  the  filters  of  the  body.  Through  their  pores  pass  alike 
the  elements  of  growth,  and  the  returning  products  of  waste.  On  one  side,  bathed 
by  the  blood,  they  choose  from  it  suitable  food  for  the  organ  they  envelop,  and 
many  of  them  in  their  tiny  cells,  by  some  mysterious  process,  form  new  products,— put 
the  finishing  touches,  as  it  were,  upon  the  material  ere  it  is  deposited  in  the  body. 

t  Sometimes  butchers  blow  air  into  veal,  which  fills  the  tiny  cells  of  this  tissue, 
and  causes  the  meat  to  appear  plump. 

$  In  dropsy,  this  elasticity  is  lost  by  distension,  and  there  is  a  kind  of  "  pitting," 
as  it  is  called,  produced  by  pressure. 

&  The  leather  made  from  this  tissue  varies  as  errefetiy,  irom  the  tough,  thick  ox- 
hide, to  the  soft,  pliable  kid  and  chamois  skin. 


56  THE   SKIN. 

Fat  is  deposited  as  an  oil  in  the  cells*  of  this 
tissue,  just  beneath  the  skin  (Fig.  24),  giving  round- 
ness and  plumpness  to  the  body,  and  acting  as  a 
powerful  non-conductor  for  the  retention  of  heat.f 
It  collects  as  pads  in  the  hollows  of  the  bones, 
around  the  joints,  and  between  the  muscles,  causing 
them  to  glide  more  easily  upon  each  other.  As 
marrow,  it  nourishes  the  skeleton,  and  also  dis- 
tributes the  shock  of  any  jar  the  limb  may  sustain. 

It  is  noticeable,  however,  that  fat  does  not  gather 
within  the  cranium,  the  lungs,  or  the  eyelids,  where 
its  accumulation  would  clog  the  organs. 

4.     THE     TEETH. 

The  Teeth  J  are  thirty-two  in  all, — there  being 
eight  in  each  half-jaw,  similarly  shaped  and  ar- 
ranged. In  each  set  of  eight,  the  two  nearest  the 
middle  of  the  jaw  have  wide,  sharp,  chisel-like 
edges,  fit  for  cutting,  and  hence  are  called  incisors. 
The  next  corresponds  to  the  great  tearing  or  holding 
tooth  of  the  dog,  and  is  styled  the  canine,  or  eye- 
tooth.  The  next  two  have  broader  crowns,  with  two 

*  So  tiny  are  these  cells,  thnt  there  are  over  65.000,000  in  a  cubic  inch  of  fat.— 
Valentine. 

t  As  the  cells  of  the  tissue  are  kept  moistened,  the  liquid  does  not  ooze  out,  but, 
on  drying,  comes  to  the  surface.  For  this  reason,  a  piece  of  fat  feels  oily  when 
exposed  to  the  air. 

$  Although  the  teeth  are  always  found  in  connection  with  the  skeleton,  and  are, 
therefore,  figured  as  a  part  of  it  (Fig.  1),  yet  they  do  not  properly  belong  to  (he  bones 
of  the  body,  and  are  merely  set  in  the  solid  jaw  to  insure  solidity.  They  arc  hard, 
and  resemble  bony  matter,  yet  they  are  neither  true  bone  nor  arc  thoy  formed  in  the 
same  manner.  "  They  are  properly  appendages  of  the  mucous  membrane,  and  are 
developed  from  it." — Leidy.  "They  belong  to  the  Tegnmentary  System,  which, 
speaking  generally  of  animals,  includes  teeth,  nails,  horns,  scales,  and  hairs."— 
Marshall.  They  are  therefore  classed  with  the  mucous  membrane,  as  are  the  naila 
ai.d  hair  with  the  ekin. 


THE  TEETH.  57 

points,  or  cusps,  and  are  hence  termed  the  bicuspids. 
The  remaining  three  are  much  broader,  and,  as  they 
are  used  to  crush  the  food,  are  called  the  grinders,  or 
molars.  The  incisors  and  eye-teeth  have  one  fang, 
or  root,  the  others  have  two  or  three  each. 

The  Milk-teeth. — We  are  provided  with  two  sets 
of  teeth.  The  first,  or  milk-teeth,  are  small  and  only 
twenty  in  number.  In  each  half -jaw  there  are  two 
incisors,  one  canine,  and  two  molars.  The  middle 
incisors  are  usually  cut  about  the  age  of  seven 
months,  the  others  at  nine  months,  the  first  molars 
at  twelve  months,  the  canines  at  eighteen  months, 
and  the  remaining  molars  at  two  or  three  years  of 
age.  The  lower  teeth  precede  the  corresponding 
upper  ones.  The  time  often  varies,  but  the  order 
seldom. 

Fig.  25. 


The  teeth  at  the  age  of  six  and  one-half  years.  I,  the  Incisors  ;  O,  the  canine ;  M, 
the  molars  ;  the  last  molar  is  the  first  of  the  permanent  teeth  ;  F,  sacs  of  the  perma- 
nent incisors  ;  C,  of  the  canine ;  B,  of  the  bicuspids  ;  N,"  of  the  M  molar  ;  the  sac  of 
the  3d  molar  is  empty.— MARSHALL. 

The  Permanent  Teeth. — At  six  years,  when  the 
first  set  is  usually  still  perfect,  the  jaws  contain 
the  crowns  of  all  the  second,  except  the  wisdom- 
teeth.  About  this  age,  to  meet  the  wants  of  the 
growing  body,  the  crowns  of  the  permanent  set 


58 


THE  SKIN. 


Fig.  27. 


begin  to  press  against  the  roots  of  the  milk-teeth, 
which,  becoming  absorbed,  leave  the  loosened  teeth 
to  drop  out,  while  the  new  ones  rise  and  occupy 
their  places.* 

The  central  incisors  appear  at  about  seven  years 
of  age;  the  others  at  eight;  the  first  bicuspids  at 
nine,  the  second  at  ten ;  the  canines  at  eleven  or 
twelve  ;  the  second  f  molars  at  twelve  or  thirteen, 
and  the  last,  or  wisdom-teeth,  are  sometimes  delayed 
until  the  twenty-second  year,  or  even  later. 
Structure  of  the  Teeth. — The  interior  of  the 
tooth  consists  principally  of  den- 
tine, a  dense  substance  re- 
sembling bone.J;  The  crown  of 
the  tooth,  which  is  exposed  to 
wear,  is  protected  by  a  sheath  of 
enamel.  This  is  a  hard,  glisten- 
^  ing,  white  substance,  containing 
only  two  and  a  half  per  cent,  of 
animal  matter.  The  fang  is  cov- 
ered by  a  thin  layer  of  true  bone 
(cement). 

At  the  center  of  the  tooth  is  a 
cavity  filled  with  a  soft,  reddish- 
white,  pulpy  substance  full  of 
ILTtr«^^B&«!  blood-vessels  and  nerves.  This 
pulp  is  very  sensitive,  and  tooth- 
ache is  caused  by  its  irritation. 


Vertical  section  of  a  Molar 
Tooth,  moderately  magnified. 


*  If  the  milk-teeth  do  not  promptly  loosen  on  the  appearance  of  the  second  set, 
the  former  should  be  at  once  removed  to  permit  the  permanent  teeth  to  assume  their 
natural  places.    If  any  fail  to  come  in  regularly,  or  if  they  crowd  the  others,  a  com- 
petent dentist  should  be  consulted. 

t  The  first  molar  appears  much  earlier.    (See  Fig.  25.) 

*  In  the  tusk  of  the  elephant  this  is  known  as  ivory. 


THE  TEETH.  59 

The  Fitting  of  the  Tooth  into  the  Jaw  is  a  most 
admirable  contrivance.  It  is  not  set,  like  a  nail  in 
wood,  having  the  fang  in  contact  with  the  bone ; 
but  the  socket  is  lined  with  a  membrane  which 
forms  a  soft  cushion.  While  this  is  in  a  healthy 
state,  it  deadens  the  force  of  any  shock,  but,  when 
inflamed,  becomes  the  seat  of  excruciating  pain. 

The  Decay  of  the  Teeth  *  is  commonly  caused  (1) 
by  portions  of  the  food  which  become  entangled  be- 
tween them,  and,  on  account  of  the  heat  and 
moisture,  quickly  decompose ;  and  (2)  by  the  saliva, 
as  it  evaporates,  leaving  on  the  teeth  a  sediment, 
which  we  call  tartar.  This  collects  organic  mat- 
ter that  rapidly  changes,  and  also  affords  a  soil  in 
which  a  sort  of  fungus  speedily  springs  up.  From 
both  these  causes,  the  breath  becomes  offensive,  and 
the  teeth  are  injured. 

Preservation  of  the  Teeth. — Children  should  early 
be  taught  to  brush  their  teeth  at  least  every  morn- 
ing with  tepid  water,  and  twice  a  week  with  soap 
and  powdered  orris-root.  They  should  also  be  in- 
structed to  remove  the  particles  of  food  from 
between  the  teeth,  after  each  meal,  by  means  of  a 
a  quill  or  wooden  tooth-pick. 

The  enamel  once  injured  is  never  restored,  and 
the  whole  interior  of  the  tooth  is  exposed  to  decay. 


*  Unlike  the  other  portions  of  the  body,  there  is  no  provision  made  for  any  change 
in  the  permanent  teeth.  That  part,  however,  which  is  thus  auring  life  most  liable  to 
change,  after  death  resists  it  the  longest.  In  deep-sea  dredgings  teeth  are  found 
when  all  traces  of  the  frame  to  which  they  belonged  have  disappeared.  Yet  hard 
and  incorruptible  as  they  seem,  their  permanence  is  only  relative.  Exposed  to 
injury  and  disease,  they  break  or  decay.  Even  if  they  escape  accident,  they  yet  wear 
at  the  crown,  are  absorbed  at  the  fang,  and,  in  time,  drop  out,  thus  affording  another 
of  the  many  signs  of  the  limitations  Providence  has  fixed  to  the  endurance  of  our 
bodies  and  the  length  of  our  lives. 


60  THE  SKIN. 

We  should  not,  therefore,  crack  hard  nuts,  bite 
thread,  or  use  metal  tooth-picks,  gritty  tooth-pow- 
ders, or  any  acid  which  "sets  the  teeth  on  edge," 
i.  e.,  that  acts  upon  the  enamel.  It  is  well  also  to 
have  the  teeth  examined  yearly  by  a  dentist,  that 
any  small  orifice  may  be  filled,  and  further  decay 
revented. 


5.    THE     GLANDS     OF     THE     SKIN. 

I.  The  Oil  Glands  are  clusters  of  tiny  sacs  which 
secrete  an  oil  that  flows  along  the  duct  to  the  root  of 
the  hair,  and  thence  oozes  out  on  the  cuticle  (Fig. 
24:.)*     This  is  nature's  efficient  hair-dressing,  and 
also  keeps  the  skin  soft  and  flexible.     These  glands 
are  not  usually  found  where  there  is  no  hair,  as  on 
the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  hence  at  those  points 
only  can  water  readily  soak  through  the  skin  into 
the  body.     They  are  of  considerable  size  on  the  face, 
especially  about  the  nose.     When  obstructed,  their 
contents  become  hard  and    dark-colored,  and   are 
vulgarly  called  "  worms,  "f 

II.  The  Perspiratory  Glands  are  fine  tubes  about 
yj^  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  length,  which  run  through  the  cutis,  and  then 
coil  up  in  little  balls  (Fig.  24).     They  are  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  body,  and  in  almost  incredible  num- 
bers.    In  the  palm  of  the  hand,  there  are  about  2,800 
in  a  single  square  inch.     On  the  back  of  the  neck 

*  This  secretion  is  paid  to  vary  in  different  persona,  and  on  that  account  the  dog 
Is  enabled  to  trace  his  master  by  the  scent. 

t  Though  they  are  not  alive,  yet,  under  the  microscope,  they  are  sometimes 
found  to  contain  a  curious  parasite  called  the  pimple-mite,  which  is  supposed  to 
consume  the  superabundant  secretion. 


THE  ABSORBING  TOWER  OF  THE  SKIN.  61 

and  trunk,  where  they  are  fewest,  there  are  yet 
400  to  the  square  inch.  The  total  number  on  the 
body  of  an  adult  is  estimated  at  about  two  and  a 
half  million.  If  they  were  laid  end  to  end,  they 
would  extend  nearly  ten  miles.*  The  mouths  of 
these  glands — "  pores,"  as  we  commonly  call  them — 
may  be  seen  with  a  pocket  lens  along  the  fine  ridges 
which  cover  the  palm  of  the  hand. 

The  Perspiration.  —  From  these  openings,  there 
constantly  passes  a  vapor,  forming  what  we  call  the 
insensible  perspiration.  Exercise  or  heat  causes  it 
to  flow  more  freely,  when  it  condenses  on  the  sur- 
face in  drops.  The  perspiration  consists  of  about 
ninety-nine  parts  water,  and  one  part  solid  matter. 
The  amount  varies  greatly,  but  on  the  average  is, 
for  an  adult,  not  far  from  two  pounds  per  day.  The 
importance  of  this  constant  drainage  has  been 
shown  by  frequent  experiments.  Small  animals,  as 
the  rabbit,  when  coated  with  varnish,  die  within 
twelve  hours,  f 

The  Absorbing  Power  of  the  Skin.  —  We  have 
already  described  two  uses  of  the  skin  :  (1)  Its  pro- 
tective, (2)  its  exhaling,  and  now  we  come  to  (3)  its 
absorbing  power.  This  is  not  so  noticeable  as  the 
others,  and  yet  it  can  be  illustrated.  Persons  fre- 


*  The  current  statement,  that  they  would  extend  twenty-eight  miles,  is  undoubt- 
edly an  exaggeration.  Krause  estimates  the  total  number  at  2,381,248,  and  the 
length  of  each  coil,  when  unraveled,  at  TV  of  an  inch,  which  would  make  the  total 
length  much  less  than  even  the  statement  in  the  text.  Seguin  states  that  the  propor- 
tion of  impurities  thrown  off  by  the  skin  and  the  lungs,  is  eleveato  seven. 

t  On  an  occasion  of  great  solemnity,  Pope  Leo  X.  caused  a  child  to  be  completely 
covered  with  gold  leaf,  closely  applied  to  the  skin,  so  as  to  represent,  according  to 
the  idea  of  the  age,  the  golden  glory  of  an  angel  or  seraph.  Within  a  few  hours 
after  this  pageant  the  child  died.  The  ignorant  common  people  of  those  days  attrib- 
uted the  death  to  the  anger  of  the  Deitv  and  looked  upon  it  &*•  an  evil  omeu 


62  THE  SKIN. 

quently  poison  their  hands  with  the  common  wood- 
ivy.  Contagious  diseases  are  caught  by  touching  a 
patient,  or  even  his  clothing,  especially  if  there  be  a 
crack  in  the  cuticle.*  Painters  absorb  so  much  lead 
through  the  pores  of  their  hands  that  they  are 
attacked  with  colic,  f  Snuff  and  lard  are  frequently 
rubbed  on  the  chest  of  a  child  suffering  with  the 
croup,  to  produce  vomiting.  It  is  said  that  seamen 
hi  want  of  water  drench  their  clothing  in  salt  spray, 
and  the  skin  will  absorb  enough  moisture  to  quench 
thirst  (see  Lymphatic  System). 

By  carefully  conducted  experiments,  it  has  been 
found  that  the  skin  acts  in  the  same  way  as  the 
lungs  (see  Respiration)  in  absorbing  oxygen  from 
the  air,  and  giving  off  carbonic  acid  to  a  small 
but  appreciable  amount.  Indeed,  the  skin  has  not 
inaptly  been  styled  the  third  lung.J 

6.     HYGIENE. 

Hints  about  Washing  and  Bathing. — The  moment 
of  rising  from  bed  is  the  proper  time  for  the  full 
wash  or  bath  with  which  one  should  commence  the 
day.  The  body  is  then  warm,  and  can  endure  mod- 

*  If  one  ie  called  upon  to  handle  a  dead  body,  it  is  well,  especially  if  the  person 
has  died  of  a  contagions  disease,  to  rub  the  hand  with  lard  or  olive-oil.  Poisonous 
matter  has  been  fatally  absorbed  through  the  breaking  of  the  cuticle  by  a  hang  nail, 
or  a  simple  scratch.  There  is  a  story  that  Buonaparte,  when  a  lieutenant  of  artillery, 
in  the  heat  of  battle,  seized  the  rammer  and  worked  the  gun  of  an  artillery-man  who 
had  fallen.  From  the  wood  which  the  soldier  had  used,  Buonaparte  absorbed  a  poison 
that  gave  him  a  skin-disease,  by  which  he  was  annoyed  the  remainder  of  his?  life. 

t  Cosmetic",  hair-dyes,  etc..  are  exceedingly  injurious,  not  only  because  they  tend 
to  fill  the  pores  of  the  skin,  but  because  they  often  contain  poisonous  matters  that 
may  be  absorbed  into  the  system,  especially  if  they  are  in  a  solution. 

$  la  some  of  the  lower  animals,  it  plays  a  etill  more  important  part.  Frog*, 
deprived  of  their  lungs,  breathe  with  almost  undiminiehcd  activity,  and  often  sur- 
vive for  days. 


HYGIENE.  63 

erately  cold  water  better  than  at  any  other  time  ; 
it  is  relaxed,  and  needs  bracing;  and  the  nerves, 
deadened  by  the  night's  repose,  require  a  gentle 
stimulus.  If  the  system  be  strong  enough  to  resist 
the  shock,  cold  water  is  the  most  invigorating ;  if 
not,  a  tepid  bath  will  answer.  * 

Before  dressing,  the  whole  body  should  be  thor- 
oughly rubbed  with  a  coarse  towel  or  flesh-brush. 
At  first,  the  friction  may  be  unpleasant,  but  this 
sensitiveness  will  soon  be  overcome,  and  the  keenest 
pleasure  be  felt  in  the  lively  glow  which  follows. 
A  bath  should  not  be  taken  just  before  nor  imme- 
diately after  a  meal,  as  it  will  interfere  with  the 
digestion  of  the  food.  Soap  should  be  employed 
occasionally,  but  its  frequent  use  tends  to  make  the 
skin  dry  and  hard. 

Reaction. — After  taking  a  cold  bath,  there  should 
be  a  prompt  reaction.  When  the  surface  is  chilled 
by  cold  water,  the  blood  sets  to  the  heart  and  other 
vital  organs,  exciting  them  to  more  vigorous  action, 
and  then,  being  thrown  back  to  the  surface,  it  red- 
dens, warms,  and  stimulates  the  skin  to  an  un- 
wonted degree.  This  is  called  the  reaction,  and  in 


*  Many  persons  have  not  the  conveniences  for  a  bath.  To  them,  the  following 
plan,  which  the  author  has  daily  employed  for  years,  is  commended.  The  necessities 
are :  a  basin  full  of  soft  water,  a  rnild  soap,  a  large  sponge  or  a  piece  of  flannel,  and 
two  towels— one  soft,  the  other  rough.  The  temperature  of  the  water  should  vary 
with  the  season  of  the  year— cold  in  summer  and  tepid  in  winter.  Rub  quickly  the 
entire  body  with  the  wet  sponge  or  flannel.  (If  more  agreeable,  wash  and  wipe  only 
a  part  at  a  time,  protecting  the  rest  in  cold  weather  with  portions  of  clothing.)  Dry 
the  skin  gently  with  a  soft  towel,  and  when  quite  dry,  with  the  rough  towel  or 
flesh-brush  rub  the  body  briskly  four  or  five  minutes  till  the  skin  is  all  aglow.  The 
chest  and  abdomen  need  the  principal  rubbing.  The  roughness  of  the  towel  should 
be  accommodated  to  the  condition  of  the  skin.  Enough  friction,  however,  must  be 
given  to  produce  at  least  a  gentle  warmth,  indicative  of  the  reaction  necessary  to 
prevent  subsequent  chill  or  languor.  An  invalid  will  find  it  exceedingly  beneficial 
if  a  stout,  vigorous  person  produce  the  reaction  by  rubbing  with  the  hands. 


64  THE  SKIN. 

it  lies  the  invigorating  influence  of  the  cold  bath. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  the  skin  be  heated  by  a  hot 
bath,  the  blood  is  drawn  to  the  surface,  less  blood 
goes  to  the  heart,  the  circulation  decreases,  and  lan- 
guor ensues.  A  dash  of  cold  water  is  both  neces- 
sary and  refreshing  at  its  close.* 

If,  after  a  cold  bath,  there  be  felt  no  glow  of 
warmth,  but  only  a  chilliness  and  depression,  we  are 
thereby  warned  that  either  proper  means  were  not 
taken  to  bring  on  this  reaction,  or  that  the  circula- 
tion is  not  vigorous  enough  to  make  such  a  bath 
beneficial.  The  general  effect  of  a  cool  bath  is 
exhilarating,  and  that  of  a  warm  one  depressing.! 
Hence  the  latter  should  not  ordinarily  be  taken 
oftener  than  once  a  week,  while  the  former  may  be 
enjoyed  daily. 

Sea-bathing  is  exceedingly  stimulating,  on  account 
of  the  action  of  the  salt  and  the  exciting  surround- 
ings. Twenty  minutes  is  the  utmost  limit  for  bath- 
ing or  swimming  in  salt  or  fresh  water.  A  chilly 
sensation  should  be  the  signal  for  instant  removal. 
It  is  better  to  leave  while  the  glow  and  buoyancy 
which  follow  the  first  plunge  are  still  felt.  Gentle 
exercise  after  a  bath  is  beneficial. 

*  The  Ruspirms  are  very  fond  of  vapor  baths,  taken  in  the  following  manner.  A 
large  room  is  heated  by  stoves.  Red-hot  stones  being  brought  in,  water  is  thrown 
upon  them,  filling  the  room  with  pteam.  The  bathers  f-it  on  benches  until  they  j>er- 
ppire  profusely,  when  they  are  rubbed  with  soapsuds  and  dashed  with  cold  water. 
Sometimes,  while  in  this  state  of  excessive  perspiration,  they  run  out  of  doors  and 
leap  into  snow-banks. 

t  The  sudden  plunge  into  a  cold  bath  is  good  for  the  strong  and  healthy,  but  too 
severe  for  the  delicate.  One  should  always  wet  first  the  face,  neck,  and  chest.  It  is 
extremely  injurious  to  stand  in  a  bath  with  only  ihe  feet  and  the  lower  limbs  cov 
ered  by  the  water,  for  the  blood  is  thus  sent  from  the  extremities  to  the  heart  and 
internal  organs,  and  they  become  so  burdened  that  reaction  may  be  out  of  their 
power.  A  brisk  walk,  or  a  thorough  rubbing  of  the  skin,  before  a  cold  bath  or  swim, 
adds  greatly  to  its  value  and  pleasure. 


HYGIENE.  65 

Clothing  in  winter,  to  keep  us  warm,  should  repel 
the  external  cold  and  retain  the  heat  of  the  body. 
In  summer,  to  keep  us  cool,  it  should  not  absorb  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  and  should  permit  the  passage  of 
the  heat  of  the  body.  At  all  seasons,  it  should  be 
porous,  to  give  ready  escape  to  the  perspiration,  and 
a  free  admission  of  air  to  the  skin.  We  can  readily 
apply  these  essential  conditions  to  the  different 
kinds  of  clothing. 

Linen  is  soft  to  the  touch,  and  is  a  good  conductor 
of  heat.  Hence  it  is  pleasant  for  summer  wear,  but, 
being  apt  to  chill  the  surface  too  rapidly,  it  should 
not  be  worn  next  the  skin. 

Cotton  is  a  poorer  conductor  of  heat  and  absorber 
of  moisture,  and  is  therefore  warmer  than  linen.  It 
is  sufficiently  cool  for  summer  wear,  and  affords  bet- 
ter protection  against  sudden  changes. 

Woolen  absorbs  moisture  slowly,  and  contains 
much  air  in  its  pores.  It  is  therefore  a  poor  conduc- 
tor of  heat,  and  guards  the  wearer  against  the 
vicissitudes  of  our  climate. 

The  outer  clothing  may  be  adapted  largely  to 
ornament,  and  may  be  varied  to  suit  our  fancy  and 
the  requirements  of  society.  But  the  body  should 
be  protected  by  plentiful  under-clothing,  which 
should  be  of  itself  sufficient  to  keep  us  warm. 
Flannel  should  be  worn  next  the  skin  at  all  times, 
except  in  the  heat  of  summer,  when  cotton  flannel 
may  be  substituted.  In  the  coldest  weather,  it 
should  be  doubled.  Its  roughness  is  sometimes 
disagreeable,  but  habit  soon  overcomes  this  sensi- 
tiveness, and  renders  it  exceedingly  grateful. 


66  THE   SKIN. 

Light-colored  clothing  is  not  only  cooler  in  sum- 
mer, but  warmer  in  winter.  As  the  warmth  of 
clothing  depends  greatly  on  the  amount  of  air  con- 
tained in  its  fibers,  fine,  loose,  porous  cloth  with 
a  plenty  of  nap  is  best  for  winter  wear.  Firm 
and  heavy  goods  are  not  necessarily  the  warmest. 
Furs  are  the  perfection  of  winter  clothing,  since 
they  combine  warmth  with  lightness.  Two  light 
woolen  garments  are  warmer  than  one  heavy  one, 
as  there  is  between  them  a  layer  of  non-conduct- 
ing air. 

All  the  body  except  the  head  should  be  equally 
protected  by  clothing.  Whatever  fashion  may  dic- 
tate, no  part  covered  to-day  can  be  uncovered  to- 
night or  to-morrow,  except  at  the  peril  of  health. 
It  is  a  most  barbarous  and  cruel  custom  to  leave  the 
limbs  of  little  children  unprotected,  when  adults 
would  shiver  at  the  very  thought  of  exposure. 
Equally  so  is  it  for  children  to  be  thinly  clad  for  the 
purpose  of  hardening  them.  To  go  shivering  with 
cold  is  not  the  way  to  increase  one's  power  of  endur- 
ance. The  system  is  made  more  vigorous  by  exer- 
cise and  food  ;  not  by  exposure.  In  winter,  there  is 
more  fear  of  too  little  than  too  much  clothing. 
Above  all,  the  feet  need  heavy  shoes  with  thick 
soles,  and  rubbers  when  it  is  damp.  At  night,  and 
after  exercise,  we  require  extra  clothing. 

Diseases,  etc. — ERYSIPELAS  is  an  inflammation  (see 
Inflammation)  of  the  skin,  and  often  begins  in  a 
spot  not  larger  than  a  pin-head,  which  spreads  with 
great  rapidity.  It  is  very  commonly  checked  by 
the  application  of  a  solution  of  iodine.  The  burn- 


DISEASES.  6? 

ing  and  contracting  sensation  may  be  relieved  by 
cloths  wrung  out  of  hot  water. 

2.  DROPSY  is  a  disease  in  which  there  is  an  accu- 
mulation of  water  in  the  system.     On  account  of  the 
free  passage  between  the  cells  of  the  connective  tis- 
sue, this  liquid  gradually  settles  into  the  feet  when 
the  person  is  standing  ;  on  reclining,  the  equilibrium 
is  restored. 

3.  CORNS    are    a   thickened   part    of  the   cuticle, 
caused   by   pressure   or    friction.     They  most    fre- 
quently occur  on  the  feet ;  but  are  produced  on  the 
shoemaker's  knee  by  constant  hammering,  and  on 
the  soldier's  shoulder  by  the  rubbing  of  his  mus- 
ket.    This  hard  portion  irritates  the  sensitive  cutis 
beneath,  and  so  causes  pain.    By  soaking  the  feet 
in  hot  water,  the  corn  will  be  softened,  when  it 
may  be  pared  with  a  sharp  knife.    If  the  cause  be 
removed,  the  corn  will  not  return. 

4.  IN-GROWING    NAILS   are    caused   by    pressure, 
which  forces  the  edge  of  the  toe-nail  into  the  flesh. 
They  may  be  cured  by  carefully  cutting  away  the 
part  which  has  mal-grown,  and  then  scraping  the 
back  of  the  nail  till  it  is  thin  and  no  longer  resists 
the  pressure.     The  two  portions,  uniting,  will  draw 
away  the  nail  from  the  flesh  at  the  edge.    They  are 
prevented  by  paring  the  nail  straight  across,  thus 
making  the  corners  right  angles,  and  by  wearing 
broad  shoes. 

5.  WARTS  are  overgrown  papillae  (Fig.  24.).     They 
may  generally  be  removed  by  the    application  of 
glacial  acetic  acid,  or  a  drop  of  nitric  acid,  repeated 
until  the  entire  structure  is  softened.     Care  must  be 


68  THE  SKIN. 

taken  to  keep  the  acid  from  touching  the  neighbor- 
ing skin.  The  capricious  character  of  warts  has 
given  rise  to  the  popular  delusion  concerning  the 
influence  of  charms  upon  them. 

6.  CHILBLAIN  is  a    local    inflammation   affecting 
generally  the  feet,  the  hands,  or  the  lobes  of  the  ear. 
Liability  to  it  usually  passes  away  with  manhood. 
It  is  not  caused  by  "freezing  the  feet,"  as  many 
suppose,  though  attacks  are  brought  on,  or  aggra- 
vated, by  exposure  to  cold  and  by  sudden  warming. 
It  is  subject  to  daily  congestion   (see  Congestion), 
manifested    by   itching,   soreness,    etc.,    commonly 
occurring  at  night.  The  best  preventive  is  a  uniform 
temperature,  and  careful  protection  against  the  cold 
by  warm,  loose,   and  plentiful  clothing,  especially 
for  the  feet. 

7.  WENS  are  caused  by  an  unnatural  activity  of 
the  arteries,  which  deposit  more  nutriment  than  is 
needed.     Physicians  "  scatter  them,"  as  it  is  termed, 
by  stimulating  the  absorbents  to  carry  off  the  excess. 
A  boil  often  disappears  without  "coming  to  a  head" 
in  a  somewhat  similar  way,  i.  e.,  by  the  renewed 
activity  of  the  absorbing  vessels. 


PRACTICAL      QUESTIONS. 

1.  If  a  hair  be  plucked  out,  will  it  grow  again  ? 

2.  What  causes  the  hair  to  "stand  on  end"  when  we  are  fright 
ened? 

3.  Why  is  the  skin  roughened  by  riding  in  the  cold  t 


PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS.  69 

4.  Why  is  the  back  of  a  washer-woman's  hand  less  water-soaked 
than  the  palm  ? 

5.  What  would  be  the  length  of  the  perspiratory  tubes  in  a  single 
square  inch  of  the  palm,  if  placed  end  to  end  ? 

6.  What  colored  clothing  is  best  adapted  to  all  seasons  ? 

7.  What  is  the  effect  of  paint  and  powder  on  the  skin  ? 

8.  Is  water-proof  clothing  healthful  for  constant  wear  ? 

9.  Why  are  rubbers  cold  to  the  feet  ? 

10.  Why  does  the  heat  seem  oppressive  when  the  air  is  moist? 

11.  Why  is  friction  of  the  skin  invigorating  after  a  cold  bath? 

12.  Why  does  the  hair  of  domestic  animals  become  roughened  in 
winter  ? 

13.  Why  do  fowls  shake  out  their  feathers  erect  before  they  perch 
for  the  night  ? 

14.  How  can  an  extensive  burn  cause  death  by  congestion  of  the 
lungs  ? 

15.  Why  do  we  perspire  so  profusely  after  drinking  cold  water  ? 

16.  What  are  the  best  means  of  preventing  skin-diseases,  colds,  and 
rheumatism? 

17.  What  causes  the  difference  between  the  hard  hand  of  a  black- 
smith and  the  soft  hand  of  a  woman  ? 

18.  Why  should  a  painter  avoid  getting  paint  on  the  palm  of  his 
hand? 

19.  Why  should  we  not  use  the  soap  or  the  soiled  towel  at  a  hotel  ? 

20.  Which  teeth  cut  like  a  pair  of  scissors  ? 

21.  Which  teeth  cut  like  a  chisel  ? 

22.  Which  should  be  clothed  the  warmer,  a  merchant  or  a  farmer  ? 

23.  Why  should  we  not  crack  nuts  with  our  teeth  ?          • 

24.  Do  the  edges  of  the  upper  and  the  lower  teeth  meet  ? 

25.  When  fatigued,  would  you  take  a  cold  bath  ? 

26.  Why    is    the    outer    surface    of    a    kid    glove    finer  than  the 
inner? 

27.  Why  will    a  brunette    endure  the    sun's    rays  better  than  a 
blonde  ? 

28.  Does  patent  leather  form  a  healthful  covering  for  the  feet  ? 


70  PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS. 

29.  Why  are  men  more  frequently  bald  than  women? 

30.  On   what  part  of   the  head  does   baldness    commonly    occur  * 
Why? 

31.  What  does  the  combination  in  our  teeth  of  canines  and  grinders 
suggest  as  to  the  character  of  our  food  ? 

32.  Is  a  staid,  formal  promenade  suitable  exercise  ? 

33.  Is  there  any  danger  in  changing  the  warm  clothing  of  our  daily 
wear  for  the  thin  one  of  a  party  ? 

34.  Should  we  retain  our  overcoat,  shawl,  or  furs  when  -we  come 
into  a  warm  room  ? 

35.  Which  should   bathe  the  oftener,   students  or  out-door  labor- 
ers? 

36.  Is  abundant  perspiration  injurious  ? 

37.  How  often  should  the  ablution  of  the  entire  body  be  performed  ? 

38.  Why  is  cold  water  better  than  warm,  for  our  daily  ablution? 

39.  Why  should  our  clothing  always  fit  loosely  ? 

40.  Why  should  we  take  special  pains  to  avoid  clothing  that  is 
colored  by  poisonous  dye  stuffs  ? 

41.  What  general  principles  should  guide  us  as  to  the  length  and 
frequency  of  baths  in  salt  or  fresh  water? 

42.  What  is  the  beneficial  effect  of  exercise  upon  the  functions  of  the 
skin? 

43.  How  can  we  best  show  our  admiration  and  respect  for  the  human 
body? 

44.  Why  is  the  scar  of  a  severe  wound  upon  a  negro  sometimes 
white  ? 


IV. 

RESPIRATION 

AND 

THE    VOICE. 


"  The  smooth  soft  air  with  pulse-like  waves 
Plows  murmuring  through  its  hidden  caves, 
Whose  streams  of  brightening  purple  rush, 
Fired  with  a  new  and  livelier  blush  ; 
While  all  their  burthen  of  decay 
The  ebbing  current  steals  away. " 


1.  ORGANS  or  VOICE 


II: 


The  Larynx. 
2.  The  Vocal  Cords. 

Different  Tones  of  Voice. 

4.  Speech. 

5.  Formation  of  Vocal  Sounds. 


2.  ORGANS  OP  RESPERA 

TION. 


3.  How  WE  BREATHE.  . 


4.  MODIFICATIONS  or  THE 
BREATH. 


f"  1,  The  Trachea. 

12.  The  Bronchial  Tubes. 
3.  The  Cells. 
4.  The  Lung-wrapping. 
5.  The  Cilia. 

j  1.  Inspiration. 
I  2.  Expiration. 

1.  Sighing. 

2.  Coughing. 

3.  Sneezing. 

4.  Snoring. 

5.  Laughing,  and  Crying. 

6.  Hiccough. 

7.  Yawning. 


5.  CAPACITY  OF  THE  LUNGS. 


6.  HTGIENE. 


1.  The  Need  of  Air. 

2.  Action  of  Air  in  the  Lungs. 

3.  Tests  of  the  Breath. 

4.  Analysis  of  expired  Air. 

5.  Effect  of  re-breathed  Air. 

The  Sources  of  Im- 


k 


purity, 
he  Sick- 


b.  The  Sick-room. 


of  Ventilation. 


Ie.  The  Church, 
f.  The  School-room. 
,  g.  How    we     should 
I         ventilate. 


7.  THE  WONDERS  OP  RESPIRATION. 


8.  DISEASES.. 


1.  Constriction  of  the  Lungs. 

2.  Bronchitis. 

3.  Pleurisy. 

4.  Pneumonia. 

5.  Consumption. 

6.  Asphyxia. 

7.  Diphtheria. 

8.  Croup. 

9.  Stammering. 


RESPIRATION 

AND 

THE     VOICE. 


rpHE  ORGANS  of  Respiration  and  the  Voice  are 
-L    the  larynx,  the  trachea,  and  the  lungs. 

Description  of  the  Organs  of  the  Voice. — 1.  THE 
LARYNX.  —  In  the  neck,  is  a  prominence  some- 
times called  Adam's  apple.  It  is  the  front  of  the 
larynx.  This  is  a  small  triangular,  cartilaginous  box, 
placed  just  behind  the  tongue,  and  at  the  top  of  the 
windpipe.  The  opening  into  it  from  the  throat  is 
called  the  glottis  ;  and  the  cover,  the  epiglottis  (epi, 
upon ;  gldtta,  the  tongue).  The  latter  is  a  spoon- 
shaped  lid,  which  opens  when  we  breathe,  but,  by  a 
nice  arrangement,  shuts  when  we  try  to  swallow, 
and  so  lets  our  food  slip  over  it  into  the  oesophagus 
(e-sof'-a-gus),  the  tube  leading  from  the  pharynx 
to  the  stomach  (Fig.  27). 

If  we  laugh  or  talk  when  we  swallow,  our  food  is 
apt  to  "go  the  wrong  way,"  i.  e.,  little  particles  pass 
into  the  larynx,  and  the  tickling  sensation  which 


RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE. 

Fig.  27. 


Passage  to  the  (Esophaau*  and  Windpipe;  c,  the  tongue :  d,  the  soft  palate,  finding 
in  g,  the  uvula ;  h,  the  epiglottis  ;  i,  the  glottis;  I,  the  asophagus;  f,  the  pharynx. 

they  produce  forces  us  to  cough  in  order  to  expel 
the  intruders. 

2.  THE  VOCAL  CORDS. — On  each  side  of  the  glottis 
are  the  so-called  vocal  cords.  They  are  not  really 
cords,  but  merely  elastic  membranes  projecting  from 
the  sides  of  the  box  across  the  opening.  *  When  not 
in  use,  they  spread  apart  and  leave  a  V-shaped  orifice 
(Fig.  28),  through  which  the  air  passes  to  and  from 
the  lungs.  If  the  cords  are  tightened,  the  edges 

*  The  cartilages  and  voral  cords  of  the  larynx  may  be  readily  seen  in  that  of 
the  ox  or  sheep.  If  the  flesh  be  cut  off,  the  cartilages  will  dry,  and  will  keep 
for  years. 


DIFFERENT  TONES  OF   THE   VOICE. 


e,  e,  the  vocal  cords ;  d,  the 
epiglottis. 


approach  sometimes  within 
of  an  inch  of  each  other,  and, 
being  thrown  into  vibration, 
cause  corresponding  vibrations 
in  the  current  of  air.  Thus 
sound  is  produced  in  the  same 
manner  as  by  the  vibrations  of 
the  tongues  of  an  accordeon,  or 
the  strings  of  a  violin,  only  in 
this  case  the  strings  are  scarcely 
an  inch  long. 

Different  Tones  of  the  Voice. 
— The  higher  tones  of  the  voice  are  produced  when 
the  cords  are  short,  tight,  and  closely  in  contact ;  the 
lower,  by  the  opposite  conditions.  Loudness  is  regu- 
lated by  the  quantity  of  air  and  force  of  expulsion. 
A  falsetto  voice  is  thought  to  be  the  result  of  a 
peculiarity  in  the  pharynx  (Fig.  27)  at  the  back  part 
of  the  nose  ;  it  is  more  probably  produced  by  some 
muscular  manoeuvre  not  yet  fully  understood.  When 
boys  are  about  fourteen  years  of  age,  the  larynx 
enlarges,  and  the  cords  grow  proportionately  longer 
and  coarser ;  hence,  the  voice  becomes  deeper,  or,  as 
we  say,  "changes."  The  peculiar  harshness  of  the 
voice  at  this  time  seems  to  be  due  to  a  congestion  of 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  cords.  The  change 
may  occur  very  suddenly,  the  voice  breaking  in  a 
single  night. 

Speech  is  voice  modulated  by  the  lips,  tongue,* 


*  The  tongue  is  styled  the  "  unruly  member,"  and  held  responsible  for  all  the 
tattling  of  the  world ;  but  when  the  tongue  is  removed,  the  adjacent  organs  in  some 
way  largely  supply  the  deficiency,  so  that  speech  is  still  possible.  Huxley  describes 
the  conversation  of  a  man  who  had  two  and  one-half  inches  of  his  tongue  preserved 


76 


RESPIRATION  AND   THE   VOICE. 


palate,  and  teeth.*  Speech  and  voice  are  commonly 
associated,  but  speech  may,  however,  exist  without 
the  voice ;  for  when  we  whisper  we  articulate  the 
words,  although  there  is  no  vocalization,  i.  e.,  no 
action  of  the  larynx,  f 


Fin.  W. 


The  Lungs,  showing  the  Larynx.    A,  the  windpipe  ;  B,  Hie  bronchial  tubes. 

in  spirits,  and  yet  conld  converse  intelligibly.  Only  the  two  letters  t  and  d  were 
beyond  his  power ;  hence,  tin  became  "  fin,"  and  dog  became  "  thog." 

*  An  artificial  larynx  may  be  made  by  usintr  elastic  bands  to  represent  the  vocal 
cords,  and  by  placing  above  them  chambers  which  by  their  resonance  will  produce 
the  same  effect  as  the  cavities  lying  above  the  larynx.  An  artificial  speaking- 
machine  was  constructed  by  Kempt-Jen,  which  could  pronounce  such  sentences  as, 
"I  love  you  with  all  my  heart,"  in  different  languages,  by  simply  touching  the 
proper  keys. 

+  We  can  observe  this  by  placing  the  hand  on  the  throat,  and  noticing  the  absence 
of  vibrations  when  we  whisper,  and  their  presence  when  we  talk.  The  difference 
between  vocalization  and  non-vocalization  is  seen  In  a  High  and  a  groan,  tde  latter 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  RESPIRATION.     77 

Formation  of  Vocal  Sounds. — The  method  of  mod- 
ulating voice  into  speech  may  be  seen  by  producing 
the  pure  vowel  sounds  a,  e,  etc.,  from  one  expiration, 
the  mouth  being  kept  open  while  the  form  of  the 
aperture  is  changed  for  each  vowel  by  the  tongue 
and  the  lips.  H  is  only  an  explosion,  or  forcible 
throwing  of  a  vowel  sound  from  the  mouth.* 

The  consonants,  or  short  sounds,  may  also  be  made 
without  interrupting  the  current  of  air,  by  various 
modifications  of  the  vocal  organs.  In  sounding 
singly  any  one  of  the  letters,  we  can  detect  its  pecu- 
liar requirements.  Thus  m  and  n  can  be  made  only 
by  blocking  the  air  in  the  mouth  and  sending  it 
through  the  nose  ;  /  lets  the  air  escape  at  the  sides 
of  the  tongue  ;  r  needs  a  vibratory  movement  of 
the  tongue  ;  b  and  p  stop  the  breath  at  the  lips  ; 
d  and  £,  at  the  back  of  the  palate.  Consonants  like 
b  and  d  are  abrupt,  or,  like  I  and  s,  continuous. 
Those  made  by  the  lips  are  termed  labials  ;  those  by 
pressing  the  tongue  against  the  teeth,  dentals;  those 
by  the  tongue,  linguals. 

The  child  gains  speech  slowly,  first  learning  to 
pronounce  the  vowel  a,  the  consonants  6,  m,  and  p, 
and  then  their  unions — ba,  ma,  pa. 

Description  of  the  Organs  of  Respiration. — Beneath 
the  larynx  is  the  wind-pipe,  or  trachea  (see  Fig.  29), 
so  called  because  of  its  roughness.  It  is  strength- 
being  the  former  vocalized.  Whistling  is  a  pure  mouth-sound,  and  does  not  depend 
on  the  voice.  Laughter  is  vocal,  being  the  aspirated  vowels,  a,  e,  or  o,  convulsively 
repeated. 

*  When,  in  sounding  a  vowel,  the  sound  coincides  with  a  sudden  change  in  the 
position  of  the  vocal  cords  from  one  of  divergence  to  one  of  approximation,  the 
vowel  is  pronounced  with  the  spiritits  asper.  When  the  vocal  cords  are  brought 
together  before  the  blast  of  air  begins,  the  vowel  is  pronounced  with  the  sjAritus 
lento.— Foster. 


RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE. 


ened   by   C-  shaped    cartilages  with    the    openings 
behind,  where  they  are  attached  to  the  oesophagus. 

At  the  lower  end,  the  tra- 
chea divides  into  two 
branches,  called  the  right 
and  left  bronchi.  These 
subdivide  in  the  small 
bronchial  tubes,  which 
ramify  through  the  lungs 
like  the  branches  of  a 
tree,  the  tiny  twigs  of 
which  at  last  end  in  clus- 
ters of  cells  so  small  that 
there  are  600,000,000  in- 
all.  This  cellular  struc- 
ture renders  the  lungs 
exceedingly  soft,  elastic, 
and  sponge-like.* 

The  stiff,  cartilaginous  rings,  so  noticeable  in  the 
rough  surface  of  the  trachea  and  the  bronchi,  dis- 
appear as  we  reach  the  smaller  bronchial  tubes,  so 
that  while  the  former  are  kept  constantly  open  for 
the  free  admission  of  air,  the  latter  are  provided  with 
elastic  fibers  by  which  they  may  be  almost  closed. 

Wrappings  of  the  Lungs. — The  lungs  are  invested 
with  a  double  covering— the  pleura — one  layer  being 
attached  to  the  lungs  and  the  other  to  the  walls  of 
the  chest.  It  secretes  a  fluid  which  lubricates  it,  so 
that  the  layers  glide  upon  each  other  with  perfect 

*  The  lungn  of  slaughtered  animals  are  vulgarly  called  "  lights,"  probably  on 
account  of  their  lightness.  They  are  similar  in  structure  to  those  of  man.  They 
will  float  on  water,  and  if  a  small  piece  be  forcibly  squeezed  between  the  fingers 
(notice  the  creaking  sound  it  gives),  it  will  still  retain  sufficient  air  to  make  it 
buoyant. 


Bronchial  Tubes,  with  dusters  of  cells. 


THE   CILIA. 


Fig.  31. 


A,  the  heart ;  "B  the  lungs  drawn  aside  to  fhoiv  the  internal  organs  ;  C,  the  dia- 
phragm ;  D,  the  liver ;  E,  the  gall  cyst ;  F,  the  stomach ;  G,  the  small  intestine  ; 
H,  the  transverse  colon. 

ease.*  The  lungs  are  lined  with  mucous  membrane, 
exceedingly  delicate  and  sensitive  to  the  presence  of 
anything  except  pure  air.  We  have  all  noticed  this 
when  we  have  breathed  anything  offensive. 

The  Cilia.— Along  the  air  passages  are  minute 
filaments  (cilia,  Fig.  32),  which  are  in  constant  mo- 
tion, like  a  field  of  grain  stirred  by  a  gentle  breeze. 
They  serve  to  fan  the  air  in  the  lungs,  and  produce 
an  outward  current,  which  is  useful  in  catching  dust 
and  fine  particles  swept  inward  with  the  breath. 

*  These  pleural  sacs  are  distinct  and  closed  ;  hence,  when  the  ribs  are  raised,  a 
partial  vacuum  being  formed  in  the  sacs,  air  rushes  in,  and  distends  the  pulmonary 
lobules. 


80 


RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE. 


B,  a  section  Of  the  mucous 
membrane,  showing  the  cilia 
rising  from  the  peculiar  epithe- 
lial cells  on  the  outside  of  the 
mucous  membrane  lining  the 
tubes;  A.  a  single  cell  more 
highly  magnified. 


How  we  Breathe. — Respira- 
tion consists  of  two  acts — tak- 
ing in  the  air,  or  inspiration, 
and  expelling  the  air,  or  expi- 
ration. 

1.  INSPIRATION.  —  When  we 
draw  in  a  full  breath,  we 
straighten  the  spine  and  throw 
the  head  and  shoulders  back, 
so  as  to  give  the  greatest  ad- 
vantage to  the  muscles.*  At 
the  same  time,  the  diaphragm  f  descends  and  presses 
the  walls  of  the  abdomen  outward.  Both  these 
processes  increase  the  size  of  the  chest.  Thereupon, 
the  elastic  lungs  expand  to  occupy  the  extra  space, 
while  the  air,  rushing  in  through  the  windpipe, 
pours  along  the  bronchial  tubes  and  crowds  into 
every  cell.J 
2.  EXPIRATION. — When  we  forcibly  expel  the  air 

*  If  we  examine  the  bony  cage  of  the  thorax  or  chest  in  Fig.  8,  we  shall  fee  that 
the  position  of  the  rihs  may  alter  its  capacity  in  two  ways.  1.  As  they  run  obliquely 
downward  from  the  spine,  if  the  sternum  or  breast-bone  be  lifted  in  front,  the 
diameter  of  the  chest  will  be  increased.  2.  The  rib?  are  fastened  by  elastic  carti- 
lages, which  stretch  as  the  muscles  that  lift  the  ribs  contract,  and  so  increase  the 
breadth  of  the  chest. 

t  The  diaphragm  is  the  muscular  partition  between  the  chest  and  the  abdomen. 
It  is  always  convex  toward  the  former  and  concave  toward  the  latter  (Fig.  31>.  Long 
muscular  fibers  extend  from  its  center  toward  the  ribs  in  front  and  Ihe  spine  at  the 
back.  When  these  contract,  they  depress  and  flatten  the  diaphragm  ;  when  they 
relax,  it  becomes  convex  again.  In  the  former  case,  the  bowels  are  pressed  down- 
ward and  the  abdomen  pushed  outward;  in  the  latter,  the  bowels  spring  upward, 
and  the  abdomen  is  drawn  inward. 

$  It  is  said  that  in  drawing  a  full  breath,  the  muscles  exert  a  force  equal  to  raising 
a  weight  of  759  pounds.  When  we  are  about  to  make  a  great  effort,  as  in  striking  a 
heavy  blow,  we  naturally  take  a  deep  inspiration,  and  shut  the  glottis.  The  confined 
air  makes  the  chest  tense  and  firm,  and  enables  ns  to  exert  a  erreater  force.  As  we 
let  slip  the  blow,  thfi  glottis  opons  and  the  air  escapes,  often  with  a  curious  aspirated 
sound,  as  is  noticeable  in  workmen  To  make  a  good  shot  with  <i  rifle,  we  should 
take  aim  with  a  full  chest  and  tight  breath,  since  then  the  arms  will  have  a  steadier 
support. 


MODIFICATIONS   OF  THE  BREATH.  81 

from  our  lungs,  the  operation  is  reversed.  We  bend 
forward,  draw  in  the  walls  of  the  abdomen,  and 
press  the  diaphragm  upward,  while  the  ribs  are 
pulled  downward, — all  together  diminishing  the  size 
of  the  chest,  and  forcing  the  air  outward. 

Ordinary,  quiet  breathing  is  performed  mainly  by 
the  diaphragm, — one  breath  to  every  four  beats  of 
the  heart,  or  eighteen  per  minute. 

Modifications  of  the  Breath. — Sighing  is  merely  a 
prolonged  inspiration  followed  by  an  audible  expira- 
tion. Coughing  is  a  violent  expiration  in  which  the 
air  is  driven  through  the  mouth.  Sneezing  differs 
from  coughing,  the  air  being  forced  through  the 
nose.  Snoring  is  a  sleeping  accompaniment,  in 
which  the  air  passes  through  both  nose  and  mouth. 
The  peculiar  sound  is  produced  by  the  palate  flap- 
ping in  this  divided  current  of  air,  and  so  throwing 
it  into  vibration.  Laughing  and  crying  are  very 
much  alike.  The  expression  of  the  face  is  necessary 
to  distinguish  between  them.  The  sounds  are  pro- 
duced by  short,  rapid  contractions  of  the  diaphragm. 
Hiccough  is  confined  to  inspiration.  It  is  caused  by 
a  contraction  of  the  diaphragm  and  a  constriction  of 
the  glottis ;  the  current  of  air  just  entering,  as  it 
strikes  the  closed  glottis,  gives  rise  to  the  well-known 
sound.  Yawning,  or  gaping,  is  like  sighing/"  It  is 
distinguished  by  a  wide  opening  of  the  mouth  and 
a  deep,  profound  inspiration.  Both  processes  furnish 
additional  air,  and  therefore  probably  meet  a  demand 

*  Their  usefulness  lies  in  bringing  up  the  arrears,  as  it  were,  of  respiration,  when 
it  has  fallen  behindhand  either  through  fatigue  or  close  attention  to  other  occupa- 
tion. The  stretching  of  the  jaws  and  limbs  may  also  serve  to  equalize  the  nervous 
influence,  certain  muscles  having  become  uneasy  on  account  of  being  stretched  or 
contracted  for  a  long  time. 


82  RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE. 

of  the  system  for  more  oxygen.  Frequently,  how- 
ever, they  are  like  laughing,  sobbing,  etc.,  merely  a 
sort  of  contagion,  which  runs  through  an  audience, 
and  seems  almost  irresistible. 

The  Capacity  of  the  Lungs. — If  we  take  a  deep 
inspiration,  and  then  forcibly  exhale  all  the  air  we 
can  expel  from  the  lungs,  this  amount,  which  is 
termed  the  breathing  capacity,  will  bear  a  very  close 
correspondence  to  our  stature.  For  a  man  of  medium 
height  (5  ft.  8  in.)  it  will  be  about  230  cubic  inches,* 
or  a  gallon,  and  for  each  inch  of  height  between  five 
and  six  feet  there  will  be  an  increase  of  eight  cubic 
inches.  In  addition,  it  is  found  that  the  lungs  con- 
tain about  100  cubic  inches  which  cannot  be  expelled, 
thus  making  their  entire  contents  about  330  cubic 
inches,  or  eleven  pints.  The  extra  amount  always 
on  hand  in  the  lungs  is  of  great  value,  since  thereby 
the  action  of  the  air  goes  on  continuously,  even 
during  a  violent  expiration.  In  ordinary  breathing, 
only  about  twenty  or  thirty  cubic  inches  (less  than  a 
pint)  of  air  pass  in  and  out. 

The  Need  of  Air. — The  body  needs  food,  clothing, 
sunshine,  bathing,  and  drink ;  but  none  of  these 
wants  is  so  pressing  as  that  for  air.  The  other  de- 
mands may  be  met  by  occasional  supplies,  but  air 
must  be  furnished  every  moment  or  we  die.  Now 
the  vital  element  of  the  atmosphere  is  oxygen  gas.  f 

*  Of  this  amount,  100  cubic  inches  can  be  forced  in  only  by  an  extra  effort,  and  is 
available  for  emergencies,  or  for  purposes  of  training  as  in  singing,  climbing,  etc. 
It  is  of  great  importance,  since,  if  the  capacity  of  the  lungs  only  equaled  our  daily 
wants,  the  least  obstruction  would  prove  fatal. 

t  See  Steele's  Chemistry,  p.nge  43.  The  atmosphere  consists  of  one-fifth  oxygen 
and  four-fifths  nitrogen.  The  former  is  the  active  element ;  and  the  latter,  the 
passive.  Oxygen  alone  would  be  too  stimulating,  and  must  be  restrained  by  the 
neutral  nitrogen. 


ANALYSIS  0$  THE  EXCISED  AIR.  83 

This  is  a  stimulating,  life-giving  principle.  No  tonic 
will  so  invigorate  as  a  few  full,  deep  breaths  of  cold, 
pure  air.  Every  organ  will  glow  with  the  energy  of 
the  fiery  oxygen. 

Action  of  the  Air  in  the  Lungs.— In  the  delicate 
cells  of  the  lungs,  the  air  gives  up  its  oxygen  to  the 
blood,  and  receives  in  turn  carbonic-acid  gas  and 
water,  foul  with  waste  matter  which  the  blood  has 
picked  up  in  its  circulation  through  the  body.  The 
blood,  thus  purified  and  laden  with  the  inspiring 
oxygen,  goes  bounding  through  the  system,  while 
the  air  we  exhale  carries  off  the  impurities.  In  this 
process,  the  blood  changes  from  purple  to  red.  If 
we  examine  our  breath,  we  can  readily  see  what  it 
has  removed  from  the  blood. 

Tests  of  the  Breath.—!.  Breathe  into  a  jar,  and 
on  lowering  into  it  a  lighted  candle,  the  flame  will 
be  instantly  extinguished  ;  thus  indicating  the  pres- 
ence of  carbonic-acid  gas.  2.  Breathe  upon  a  mirror, 
and  a  film  of  moisture  will  show  the  vapor.  *  3.  If 
the  breath  be  confined  in  a  bottle  for  a  time,  the 
animal  matter  will  decompose  and  give  off  an  offen- 
sive odor. 

Analysis  of  the  Expired  Air  shows  that  it  has  lost 
about  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  its  oxygen,  and  gained 
an  equal  amount  of  carbonic-acid  gas,  besides 
moisture,  and  organic  impurities.  Our  breath,  then, 
is  air  robbed  of  its  vitality,  and  containing  in  its 

*  There  is  a  close  relation  between  the  functions  of  the  skin,  the  lungs,  and  the 
kidneys— the  scavengers,  of  the  body.  They  all  carry  off  water  from  the  blood, 
and  when  the  function  of  one  of  the  three  is,  in  this  respect,  interfered  with,  the 
others  are  called  upon  to  perform  its  functions.  When  the  function  of  perspiration 
is  deranged,  the  lungs  and  kidneys  are  required  to  perform  heavier  duty,  and  this 
may  lead  to  disease  (p.  61). 


$4  RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE. 

place  a  gas  as  fatal  to  life  *  as  it  is  to  a  flame,  and 
effete  matter  which  is  disagreeable  to  the  smell, 
injurious  to  the  health,  and  may  contain  the  germs 
of  disease. 

The  Evil  Effect  of  Re-breathing  the  air  cannot  be 
over-estimated.  We  take  back  into  our  bodies  that 
which  has  just  been  rejected.  The  blood  thereupon 
leaves  the  lungs,  bearing,  not  the  invigorating 
oxygen,  but  refuse  matter  to  obstruct  the  whole  sys- 
tem. We  soon  feel  the  effect.  The  muscles  become 
inactive.  The  blood  stagnates.  The  heart  acts 
slowly.  The  food  is  undigested.  The  brain  is 
clogged.  The  head  aches.  Instances  of  fatal  results 
are  only  too  frequent,  f  The  constant  breathing  of 
even  the  slightly-impure  air  of  our  houses  cannot 
but  tend  to  undermine  the  health.  The  blood  is  not 
purified,  and  is  thus  in  a  condition  to  receive  the 
seeds  of  disease  at  any  time.  The  system  uninspired 
by  the  energizing  oxygen  is  sensitive  to  cold.  The 
pale  cheek,  the  lustreless  eye,  the  languid  step, 
speak  but  too  plainly  of  oxygen  starvation.  In  such 
a  soil,  catarrh,  scrofula,  and  consumption  run  riot.  J 

*  Carbonic-acid  gas  cannot  be  breathed  when  undiluted,  as  the  glottis  closes  and 
forbids  its  passage  into  the  lungs.  Air  containing  only  three  or  four  per  cent,  acts 
as  a  narcotic  poison  (Mittei-),  and  a  much  smaller  proportion  will  have  an  injurious 
effect.  The  great  danger,  however,  lies  in  the  organic  particles  constantly  exhaled 
from  the  lungs  and  the  skin,  which,  it  is  believed,  are  often  direct  and  active 
poisons. 

t  During  the  English  war  in  India  in  the  last  century,  146  prisoners  were  shut  up 
in  a  room  scarcely  large  enough  to  hold  them.  The  air  could  enter  only  by  two  nar- 
row windows.  At  the  end  of  eight  hours,  but  twenty-three  persons  remained  alive, 
and  these  were  in  a  most  deplorable  condition.  This  prison  is  well  called  "  The 
Black  Hole  of  Calcutta.1'— Percy  relates  that  after  the  battle  of  Ansterlitz,  300  Rus- 
sian prisoners  were  confined  in  a  cavern,  where  260  of  thorn  perished  in  a  few  hours. 
—The  stupid  captain  of  the  ship  Londonderry,  during  a  storm  at  sea.  shut  the 
hatches.  There  were  only  seven  cubic  feet  of  space  left  for  each  person,  and  in  six 
hours  ninety  of  the  passengers  were  dead. 

%  •'  One  not  very  strong,  or  unable  powerfully  to  resist  conditions  unfavorable  to 


CONCERNING  VENTILATION.  85 

Concerning  the  Need  of  Ventilation. — The  foul  air 
which  passes  off  from  the  lungs  and  through  the 
pores  of  the  skin  does  not  fall  to  the  floor,  but 
diffuses  itself  through  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 
A  single  breath  will  to  a  trifling  but  certain  extent 
taint  the  air  of  a  whole  room.*  A  light  will  vitiate 
as  much  air  as  a  dozen  persons.  Many  breaths  and 
lights  therefore  rapidly  unfit  the  air  for  our  use. 

The  perfection  of  ventilation  is  reached  when  the 
air  of  a  room  is  as  pure  as  that  out  of  doors.  To  ac- 
complish this  result,  it  is  necessary  to  allow  for  each 
person  600  cubic  feet  of  space,  while  ventilation  is 
still  going  on  in  the  best  manner  known. 

In  spite  of  these  well-known  facts,  scarcely  any 
pains  are  taken  to  supply  fresh  air,  while  the  doors 
and  windows  where  the  life-giving  oxygen  might 
creep  in  are  hermetically  stopped. 

How  often  is  this  true  of  the  sick-room.  Yet  here 
the  danger  of  bad  air  is  intensified.  The  expired 
breath  of  the  patient  is  peculiarly  threatening  to 
himself  as  well  as  to  others.  Nature  is  seeking  to 
throw  off  the  poison  of  the  disease.  The  scavengers 
of  the  body  are  all  at  work.  The  breath  and  the  in- 
sensible perspiration  are  loaded  with  impurities,  f 

health,  and  with  a  predisposition  to  lung  disease,  will  be  sure,  sooner  or  later,  by 
partial  lung  starvation  and  blood-poisoning,  to  develop  pulmonary  consumption. 
The  lack  of  what  is  so  abundant  and  so  cheap— good,  pure  air— is  unquestionably  the 
one  great  cause  of  this  terrible  disease."— Black's  Ten  Laws  of  Health. 

*  This  grows  out  of  a  well-known  philosophical  principle  called  the  Diffusion  of 
Gases,  whereby  two  gases  tend  to  mix  in  exact  proportions,  no  matter  what  may  be 
the  quantity  of  each.—  Steele's  Chemistry,  p.  96,  and  Physics,  p.  49. 

t  The  floating  dust  in  the  air,  revealed  to  us  by  the  sunbeam  shining  through  a 
crack  in  the  blinds,  shows  the  abundance  of  these  impurities,  and  also  the  presence 
of  germs -which,  lodging  in  the  lungs,  may  implant  disease,  unless  thrown  off  by  a 
vigorous  constitution.  "  On  uncovering  a  scarlet-fever  patient,  a  cloud  of  fine  dust 
is  seen  to  rise  from  the  body— contagious  dust,  that  for  days  will  retain  its  poisonous 
properties,"—  Youman?. 


86  RESPIRATION  AND   THE  VOICE. 

The  odor  is  oftentimes  exceedingly  offensive.  Sick 
and  well  alike  need  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.  But, 
too  often,  it  is  the  only  want  not  supplied. 

Our  sitting-rooms,  heated  by  furnaces  or  red-hot 
stoves,  generally  have  no  means  of  ventilation,  or, 
if  provided,  they  are  seldom  used.  A  window  is 
occasionally  dropped  to  give  a  little  relief,  as  if  pure 
air  were  a  rarity,  and  must  be  doled  out  to  the  suf- 
fering lungs  in  morsels,  instead  of  full  and  constant 
draughts.  The  inmates  are  starved  by  scanty  lung- 
food,  and  stupefied  by  foul  air.  The  process  goes  on 
year  by  year.  The  weakened  and  poisoned  body  at 
last  succumbs  to  disease,  while  we,  in  our  blindness 
and  ignorance,  talk  of  the  mysterious  Providence 
which  thus  untimely  cuts  down  the  brightest  intel- 
lects. The  truth  is,  death  is  often  simply  the  penalty 
for  violating  nature's  laws.  Bad  air  begets  disease  ; 
disease  begets  death. 

In  our  churches,  the  foul  air  left  by  the  congrega- 
tion on  Sunday  is  shut  up  during  the  week,  and 
heated  for  the  next  Lord's  day,  when  the  people 
assemble  to  re-breathe  the  polluted  atmosphere. 
They  are  thus  forced,  with  every  breath  they  take, 
to  violate  the  physical  laws  of  Him  whom  they  meet 
to  worship,— laws  written  not  3000  years  ago  upon 
Mount  Sinai  on  tables  of  stone,  but  to-day  engraved 
.  in  the  constitution  of  their  own  living,  breathing 
bodies.  On  brains  benumbed  and  starving  for  oxy- 
gen, the  purest  truth  and  the  highest  eloquence  fall 
with  little  force. 

We  sleep  in  a  small  bed-room  from  which  every 
breath  of  fresh  air  is  excluded,  because  we  believe 


SCHOOL-ROOM  VENTILATION.  87 

night-air  to  be  unhealthy,*  and  so  we  breathe  its 
dozen  hogsheads  of  air  over  and  over  again,  and 
then  wonder  why  we  awaken  in  the  morning  so  dull 
and  unref reshed  !  Return  to  our  room  after  inhaling 
the  fresh,  morning  air,  and  the  fetid  odor  we  meet  on 
opening  the  door,  is  convincing  proof  how  we  have 
poisoned  our  lungs  during  the  night. 

Each  room  should  be  supplied  with  2000  feet  of 
fresh  air  per  hour  for  every  person  it  contains.  Our 
ingenuity  ought  to  find  some  way  of  doing  this 
advantageously  and  pleasantly.  A  moiety  of  the 
care  we  devote  to  delicate  articles  of  food,  drink, 
and  dress  would  abundantly  meet  this  prime  neces- 
sity of  our  bodies. 

Open  the  windows  a  little  at  the  top  and  the  bot- 
tom. Put  on  plenty  of  clothing  to  keep  warm  by 
day  and  by  night,  and  then  let  the  inspiring  oxygen 
come  in  as  freely  as  God  has  given  it.  Pure  air  is 
the  cheapest  necessity  and  luxury  of  life.  Let  it  not 
be  the  rarest ! 

School-room  Ventilation. — Who,  on  going  from  the 
open  air  of  a  clear,  bracing  winter's  day,  into  a 
crowded  school-room,  late  in  the  session,  has  not 
noticed  the  disagreeable  odor,  and  been  for  a  mo- 
ment nauseated,  and  half-stifled  by  the  oppressive 
atmosphere  !  It  is  not  strange.  See  how  many 
causes  here  combine  to  pollute  the  air.  If  the  room 
is  heated  by  a  stove,  quantities  of  carbonic-oxide 


*  There  is  a  singular  prejudice  against  the  night  air.  Yet,  as  Florence  Nightin- 
gale aptly  says,  what  other  air  can  we  breathe  at  night?  We  then  have  the  choice 
between  foul  air  within  and  pure  air  without.  For,  in  large  cities  especially,  the 
night  air  is  far  more  wholesome  than  that  of  the  day-time.  To  secure  fresh  air  all 
night  we  must  open  the  wiudpws  of  our  bed -room. 


88  RESPIRATION  AND  THE   VOICE. 

and  carbonic-acid  gases,  as  well  as  other  products 
of  combustion,  driven  by  downward  drafts  in  the 
flue,  escape  through  seams  and  cracks  and  the 
occasionally-opened  door  of  the  stove.  In  the  case 
of  a  furnace,  the  same  effect  is  too  often  experi- 
enced and  the  odor  of  coal-gas  is  a  common  one, 
especially  when  the  fire  is  replenished.  The  insen- 
sible perspiration  is  more  active  in  children  than  in 
adults  ;  they,  moreover,  rush  in  with  their  clothing 
saturated  with  the  perspiration  induced  by  their 
sports ;  so  that,  on  the  average,  each  pupil,  during 
school  hours,  loads  the  air  with  about  half-a-pint  of 
aqueous  vapor.  The  children  come,  oftentimes,  from 
homes  that  are  close,  ill-ventilated,  and  uncleanly ; 
and  frequently  from  sick-rooms,  bringing  in  their 
clothing  the  germs  of  disease.  Some  of  the  pupils 
may  even  bear  traces  of  illness,  or  have  unsound 
organs,  and  so  their  breath  and  exhalations  be 
poisonous. 

In  addition  to  all  this,  the  air  is  filled  with  dust 
brought  in  and  kept  astir  by  many  busy  feet ;  by 
ashes  from  the  stove  or  furnace ;  and  especially  by 
chalk-dust.  The  modern  method  of  teaching  requires 
a  large  amount  of  black-board  work  and  the  air  of 
the  school-room  is  thus  loaded  with  chalk-particles. 
These  collect  in  the  nasal  passages,  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  larynx,  and  irritate  the  membrane,  per- 
haps laying  the  foundation  of  catarrh. 

The  usual  school-room  atmosphere  bears  in  the 
pupils  the  natural  fruit  of  frequent  headaches,  in- 
attention, weariness,  and  stupor  :  but  in  the  teacher 
its  frightful  influence  is  most  apparent.  His  labor 
is  severe,  his  worry  of  mind  is  constant,  and,  when 


HOW   SHALL  WE  VENTILATE  ?  89 

he  finishes  his  day's  work,  he  is  generally  too  tired 
to  take  the  required  exercise.  He  consequently 
labors  on  with  impaired  health,  or  breaks  down 
prematurety. 

Instead  of  six  hundred  feet  of  space  being  allowed 
for  each  pupil,  as  perfect  ventilation  demands — the 
lowest  estimate  being  250  feet — often  not  over  one 
hundred  feet  are  afforded.  Instead  of  2000  cubic 
feet  of  fresh  air  for  each  pupil  being  supplied,  and 
as  much  foul  air  removed  every  hour,  as  all  physi- 
ologists assert  is  needed  for  perfect  health,  perhaps 
no  means  of  ventilation  at  all  are  provided,  and 
none  is  secured  except  what  an  occasionally-opened 
door,  or  the  benevolent  cracks  and  chinks  in  the 
building  furnish  the  suffering  lungs.* 
X  How  shall  We  Ventilate  ?— The  usual  method  of 
ventilation  depends  upon  the  fact  that  hot  air  is 
lighter  than  cold  air,  and  so  the  cold  air  tends,  by 
the  force  of  gravity,  to  fall  and  compel  the  warm 
air  to  rise.  Thus,  if  we  open  the  door  of  a  heated 
room,  and  hold  a  lighted  candle  first  at  the  top,  and 
then  at  the  bottom,  we  can  see,  by  the  deflection  of 
the  flame,  that  there  is  a  current  of  air  setting  out- 
ward at  the  top,  and  another  setting  inward  at  the 
bottom  of  the  opening.  A  handkerchief  held  loosely, 
or  the  smoke  of  a  smoldering  match,  in  front  of  a 
fire-place  will  show  a  current  of  air  passing  up  the 

*  Imagine  fifty  pupils  put  into  a  class-room  thirty  feet  long,  twenty-five  feet  wide, 
mid  ten  feet  high.  This  would  generally  be  considered  a  very  liberal  provision. 
Such  a  room  contains  7500  cubic  feet  of  air.  But  it  furnishes  only  150  feet  of  space 
for  each  pupil.  Allowing  ten  cubic  feet  of  air  per  pupil  each  minute,  in  fifteen 
minutes  after  assembling,  the  entire  atmosphere  of  the  room  is  tainted,  and  unfit  to 
be  re-breathed.  The  demand  of  health  is  that  at  least  1500  cubic  feet  of  pure  air 
should  be  admitted  into  this  room  every  minute,  and  as  much  bo  removed. 


90  RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE, 

chimney ;  this  is  caused  by  the  difference  of  tem- 
perature between  the  air  in  the  room  and  the  outside 
atmosphere.  Upon  this  difference  of  temperature,  all 
ordinary  ventilation  is  based.*  A  proper  treatment 
of  this  subject  and  its  practical  applications,  would 
require  a  book  by  itself.  There  is  room  here  for 
only  a  few  general  statements  and  suggestions, 

1.  Two  openings  are  always  necessary  to  produce 
a  thorough  change  of  air.     (See  Chemistry,  p.  80.) 
Put  a  lighted  candle  in  a  bottle.     The  flame  will 
soon  be  extinguished.    The  oxygen  of  the  little  air 
in  the  bottle  is  burned  out,  and  carbonic-acid  has 
taken  its  place.    Now  place  over  the  mouth  of  the 
bottle  a  lamp-chimney,  and  insert  in  the  chimney  a 
strip  of  card-board,  thus  dividing  the  passage.     On 
relighting  the  candle,  it  will  burn  freely.  The  smoke 
of  a  bit  of  smoldering  paper  will  show  that  two 
opposite  currents  of  air  are  established,  one  setting 
into  the  bottle,  the  other  outward. 

2.  In  the  winter,  when  our  school-rooms,  churches, 
public  halls,  etc.,  are  heated  artificially,  ventilation 
is  comparatively  easy  if  properly  arranged,  f     The 
required  difference  of  temperature  is  kept  up  with 
little  difficulty.     The  fresh  air  admitted  to  the  room 
should  then  be  heated  either  by  a  furnace,  or  by 
passing  over  a  stove,  or  through  a  coil  of  steam- 

*  Public  buildings  are  sometimes  rentflated  by  mechanical  means,  {.  £.,  immense 
fans  which  arc  turned  by  machinery,  and  thus  set  the  air  in  motion.  Such  methods 
arc,  however,  expensive,  and  rarely  adopted,  except  where  power  is  also  used  for 
other  purposes. 

t  For  the  escape  of  bad  air,  Dr.  Bell  suggests  that  an  efficient  foul-air  shift  may 
be  fitted  to  the  commonest  of  stoves  by  simply  inclosing  the  stove-pipe  in  a  jacket — 
that  is,  in  a  pipe  two  or  three  inches  greater  in  diameter.  This  should  be  braced 
round  the  stove-pipe  and  left  open  at  the  end  next  the  stove.  At  its  entry  into  the- 
chimney  a  perforated  collar  should  separate  it  from  the  stove-pipe. 


HOW  SHALL  WE  VENTILATE  ?  *  91 

pipes.  This  cold  air  should  always  be  taken  directly 
from  out-doors,  and  not  from  a  cellar,  or  under  a 
piazza  where  contamination  is  possible. 

3.  In  order  to  remove  the  impure  air,  there  should 
be  ventilators  provided  at  or  near  the  floor,  opening 
into  air-shafts,  or  pipes  leading  upward  through  the 
roof,  with  proper  orifices  at  the  top.  These  venti- 
lating-pipes  should  be  heated  artificially  so  as  to 
produce  a  draft:  They  may  form  one  of  the  flues 
of  a  chimney  in  which  there  is  a  constant  fire  ;  or  be 
carried  upward  in  a  large  flue  through  the  center  of 
which  runs  the  smoke-pipe  of  the  furnace  or  stove  ;  * 
or  the  ventilating-pipe  be  itself  conveyed  through 
the  center  of  the  larger  chimney-flue.  If  the  register 
for  hot  air  be  on  the  floor  at  one  side  of  the  room, 
two  or  more  ventilators  may  be  placed  near  the  floor 
on  the  opposite  side.  The  warm  air  will  thus  make 
the  complete  circuit  of  the  room,  and  thoroughly 
warm  it  before  passing  out. 

If  the  ventilating-shaft  be  not  heated  artificially, 
the  ventilator  must  be  placed  at  the  top  of  the  room 
in  order  that  the  hot  air  may  escape  through  it,  thus 
producing  an  upward  draft.  But  the  objection  to 
this  method  is  that  it  allows  the  warmer  air  to 
escape,  while  economy  requires  that  the  cooler  air 
at  the  bottom  of  the  room  should  be  removed  and 

*  This  plan  has  been  adopted  in  the  new  school-buildings  of  Elmira,  N.  Y.  The 
older  buildings  were  provided  with  ventilating-pipes.  not  heated  artificially,  and 
hence  of  no  service.  These  pipes  are  rendered  effective,  however,  by  conducting 
them  into  a  small  room  in  the  garret,  heated  by  a  coal-stove.  From  this  room,  a 
lar:e  exit-pipe  leads  to  the  roof,  where  it  terminates  in  an  Emerson's  ventilator.  So 
strong  a  draft  is  thus  established  that  throughout  the  building  air  is  taken  from  the 
floors,  and  consequently  the  cooler  portion  of  the  rooms,  at  a  velocity  of  three  to 
five  feet  per  second,  or  180  to  300  cubic  feet  per  minute  for  each  square  foot  of  flue- 
opening.  In  perpendicular  flues,  heated  throughout  with  a  smoke-flue  from  the  fur- 
nace, ten  feet  per  second  is  attained. 


92  'RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE. 

the  warm  air  be  made  to  descend,  thus  securing 
uniformity  of  temperature. 

4.  In  the  summer,  ventilation  may  be  commonly 
provided  for  by  opening  windows  at  the  top  and  the 
bottom,  on  the  sheltered  side  of  the  building,  so  as 
to  avoid  drafts  of  air  injurious  to  the  occupants.  On 
a  dull,  still,  hot  day,  when  there  is  little  difference 
of  temperature  between  the  inner  and  the  outer  air, 
ventilation  can  be  secured  only  by  having  a  fire 
provided  in  the  ventilating-shaft ;  this,  by  exhaust- 
ing the  air  from  the  room,  will  cause  a  fresh  current 
to  pour  in  through  the  open  windows.  At  recess,  all 
the  children  should,  if  the  weather  permit,  be  sent 
out-doors,  to  allow  their  clothing  to  be  exposed  to 
the  purifying  influence  of  the  open  air,  and  the  win- 
dows to  be  thrown  wide  open,  to  ventilate  the  room 
thoroughly.  In  bad  weather,  rapid  marching  or 
calisthenic  exercises  will  furnish  exercise,  and  also 
permit  the  airing  of  the  room. 

6.  The  school  and  the  church  are  the  centers  for 
spreading  contagious  diseases.  The  former  is  espe- 
cially dangerous,  and  therefore  great  pains  should 
be  taken  to  exclude  pupils  attacked  by  or  recovering 
from  diphtheria,  scarlet-fever,  whooping-cough,  etc., 
and  even  those  who  live  in  houses  where  such  sick- 
ness exists. 

G.  In  our  houses,*  open   fire-places  are  efficient 

*  The  air  of  our  homes  is  often  contaminated  by  decaying  vegetables  and  other 
filth  in  the  cellar;  by  bad  air  drawn  up  into  the  cellar  from  the  soil,  by  the  powerful 
draughts  that  our  fires  create  ;  by  defective  gas  and  waste-pipes  that  let  the  foul  air 
from  cesspool  or  sewer  spread  through  the  house  ;  and  by  piles  of  refuse,  or  pu-ldles  of 
plops  emptied  at  the  back-door.  While  the  water  in  our  wells,  or  in  streams  that  sup- 
ply our  towns  and  cities,  receives  too  often  the  drainage  from  out-hou^cs  and  barn- 
yards, and  so  introduces  into  oar  systems,  in  the  liquid,  and  thus  easily-assimilated 
form,  the  most  dangerous  poisons.  The  question  of  sanitary  precautions  is  there- 
fore e«e  that  presses  upon  every  th  ughtful  mind,  and  demands  constant  attention. 


WONDERS  OF  RESPIRATION.  93 

ventilators,  and  they  should  never  be  closed  for  any 
cause.  Fresh  air  admitted  by  a  hot-air  register  and 
impure  air  passed  out  by  a  chimney,  form  a  simple 
and  thorough  system.  Our  sleeping-apartments 
demand  especial  care.  As  soon  as  the  occupants 
leave  the  room,  the  bed-clothes  should  be  removed, 
and  laid  on  the  backs  of  chairs  to  air ;  the  bed  be 
shaken  up  ;  and  the  windows  thrown  open.  In  the 
summer,  the  windows  may  be  closed  before  the  sun 
is  high ;  the  house  is  then  left  filled  with  the  cool 
morning  air.  In  damp  and  cold  weather,  a  fire 
should  be  lighted  in  sleeping-apartments,  particu- 
larly if  used  by  children  or  delicate  persons,  to  dry 
the  bed-clothing,  and  also  to  prevent  a  chill  on  the 
part  of  the  occupants.  It  is  not  necessary  to  go 
shivering  to  bed  in  order  to  harden  one's  consti- 
tution. 

Wonders  of  Respiration.  —  The  perfection  of  the 
organs  of  respiration  challenges  our  admiration. 
So  delicate  are  they  that  the  least  pressure  would 
cause  exquisite  pain,  yet  tons  of  air  surge  to  and  fro 
through  their  intricate  passages,  and  bathe  their 
innermost  cells.  We  yearly  perform  at  least  7,000,000 
acts  of  breathing,  inhaling  100,000  cubic  feet  of  air, 
and  purifying  over  3,500  tons  of  blood.  This  gigantic 
process  goes  on  constantly,  never  wearies  or  worries 
us,  and  we  wonder  at  it  only  when  science  reveals 
to  us  its  magnitude.  In  addition,  by  a  wise  econ- 
omy, the  process  of  respiration  is  made  to  subserve 
a  second  use  no  less  important,  and  the  air  we 
exhale,  passing  through  the  organs  of  voice,  is 
transformed  into  prayers  of  faith,  songs  of  hope, 
and  words  of  social  cheer. 


94 


RESPIRATION  AND   THE  VOICE. 


Diseases,  etc.— 1.  CONSTRICTION  OF  THE  LUNGS  is 
produced  by  tight  clothing.    The  ribs  are  thus  forced 

Fig.  S3, 


A,  the  natural  position  of  the  internal  organs.  B,  when  deformed  by  light  lacing. 
MARSHALL  says  that  the  liver  and  (he  stomach  have,  in  this  way,  been  forced  down- 
ward almost  as  low  an  the  pelvis. 


inward,  the  size  of  the  chest  is  diminished,  and  the 
amount  of  inhaled  air  decreased.  Stiff  clothing,  and 
especially  a  garment  that  will  not  admit  of  a  full 
breath  without  inconvenience,  will  prevent  that  free 
movement  of  the  ribs  so  essential  to  health.  Any 
infraction  of  the  laws  of  respiration,  even  though  it 
be  fashionable,  will  result  in  diminished  vitality  and 


DISEASES,   ETC.  95 

vigor,  and  will  be  fearfully  punished  by  sickness  and 
weakness  through  the  whole  life. 

2.  BRONCHITIS  is  an  inflammation  (see  Inflamma- 
tion)   of  the  mucous    membrane  of  the  bronchial 
tubes.     It  is  accompanied  by  an  increased  secretion 
of  mucus,  and  consequent  coughing. 

3.  PLEURISY  is  an  inflammation  of  the  pleura.    It 
is  sometimes  caused  by  an  injury  to  the  ribs,  and 
results  in  a  secretion  of  water  within  the  membrane. 

4.  PNEUMONIA  (pneuma,  breath)  is  an  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lungs,  affecting  chiefly  the  air-cells. 

5.  CONSUMPTION  is  a  disease  which  destroys  the 
substance  of  the  lungs.     Like  other  lung  difficulties, 
it  is  caused  largely  by  a  want  of  pure  air,  a  liberal 
supply  of  which  is  the  best  treatment  that  can  be 
prescribed  for  it.* 

G,  ASPHYXIA  (as-fix'-i-a).  When  a  person  is 
drowned,  strangled,  or  choked  in  any  way,  what  is 
called  asphyxia  occurs.  The  face  turns  black;  the 
veins  become  turgid  ;  insensibility  and  often  convul- 
sions ensue.  If  relief  is  not  secured  within  a  few 
minutes,  death  will  be  inevitable,  f  (See  Appendix.) 

7.  DIPHTHERIA  (diphthera,  a  membrane)  is  a  kind 
of  sore-throat,  in  which  matter  exudes  from  the 
mucous  membrane.  This  stiffens  into  a  peculiar 
white  substance,  patches  of  which  may  be  seen  in 


*  **  If  I  were  seriously  ill  of  consumption,  I  would  live  out-doors  day  and  night, 
except  in  rainy  weather  or  mid-winter ;  then  I  would  sleep  in  an  unplastered  log- 
house.  Physic  has  no  nutriment,  gaspings  for  air  cannot  cure  you,  monkey  capers 
in  a  gymnasium  cannot  cure  you,  and  stimulants  cannot  cure  you.  What  consump- 
tives want  is  pure  air,  not  physic— pure  air,  not  medicated  air— plenty  of  meat  and 
plenty  of  bread."— Dr.  Marshall  Hall. 

t  The  lack  of  oxygen,  and  the  presence  of  carbonic-acid  gas,  are  the  combined 
causes.  Oxygen  starvation  and  carbonic-acid  poisoning,  each  fatal  in  itself,  work 
together  to  destroy  Ufa 


96  PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS. 

the  back  part  of  the  mouth.  Fever  and  debility 
accompany  this  disease,  which  is  so  sudden  and 
insidious  in  its  advances  as  to  be  exceedingly 
dreaded. 

8.  CROUP,  which  often  attacks  young  children,  is 
an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
larynx  and  trachea.     It  is  commonly  preceded  by  a 
cold.    The  child  sneezes,  coughs,  and  is  hoarse,  but 
the  attack  frequently  comes  on  suddenly,  and  usu- 
ally in  the  night.    It  is  accompanied  by  a  peculiar 
"brassy,"  ringing  cough,  which,   once  heard,  can 
never  be  mistaken.     It  may  prove  fatal  within  a  few 
hours.     (See  Appendix.) 

9.  STAMMERING  depends,  not  on   defects  of   the 
muscles,  but  on  a  want  of  due  control  of  the  mind. 
When  a  stammerer  is  not  too  conscious  of  his  lack, 
and  tries  to  form  his  words  slowly,  he  speaks  plainly, 
and  may  sing  well,  for  then  his  words  must  come  in 
time.     Many  persons  who  stutter  in  common  conver- 
sation can  talk  with  much  fluency  when  making  a 
speech.     The  stammerer  should  find  out  his  peculiar 
difficulty,  and  overcome  it  by  exercise,  and  espe- 
cially by  speaking  only  after  a  full  inspiration. 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  philosophy  of  "  the  change  of  voice  "  in  a  boy  ? 

2.  Why  can  we  see  our  breath  on  a  frosty  morning  ? 

3.  When  a  law  of  health  and  a  law  of  fashion  conflict,  which  should 
we  obey  ? 

4.  If  we  use  a  "  bunk  "  bed,  should  we  pack  away  the  clothes  when 
we  first  rise  in  the  morning  ? 


PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS.  97 

5.  Why  should  a  clothes-press  be  well  ventilated? 

6.  Should  the  weight  of  our  clothing  hang  from  the  waist,  or  the 
shoulder  ? 

7.  Describe  the  effects  of  living  in  an  overheated  room? 

8.  What  habits  impair  the  power  of  the  lungs  ? 

9.  For  full,  easy  breathing  in  singing,  should  we  use  the  diaphragm 
and  lower  ribs,  or  the  upper  ribs  alone? 

10.  Why  is  it  better  to  breathe  through  the  nose  than  the  mouth  ? 

11.  Why  should  not  a  speaker  talk  while  returning  home  on  a  cold 
night  after  a  lecture  ? 

12.  What  part  of  the  body  needs  the  loosest  clothing  ? 

13.  What  part  needs  the  warmest  ? 

14.  Why  is  a  "  spare  bed  "  generally  unhealthf  ul  ? 

15.  Is  there  any  good  in  sighing  ? 

16.  Should  a  hat  be  thoroughly  ventilated  ?    How  ? 

17.  Why  do  the  lungs  of  people  who  live  in  cities  become  of  a  gray 
color  ? 

18.  How  would  you  convince   a  person  that  a  bed-room  should  be 
aired? 

19.  What  persons  are  most  liable  to  scrofula,  consumption,  etc.  ? 

20.  If  a  person  is  plunged  under  water  will  it  enter  his  lungs  ? 

21.  Are  bed- curtains  healthful  ? 

22.  Why  do  some  people  take  "  short  breaths  "  after  a  meal  ? 

23.  What  is  the  special  value  of  public  parks  ? 

24.  Can  a  person  become  used  to  bad  air,  so  that  it  will  not  irjure 
him? 

25.  Why  do  we  gape  when  we  are  sleepy  ? 

26.  Is  a  fashionable  waist  a  mddel  of  art  in  sculpture  or  painting  ? 

27.  Should  a  fire-place  be  closed?* 

28.  Why  does  embarrassment  or  fright  cause  a  stammerer  to  stutter 
still  more  painfully  ? 

*  "  Thousand  of  lives  would  be  paved  if  all  fire-places  were  kept  open.  If  you  are 
so  fortunate  as  to  have  a  fire-place  in  your  room,  paint  it  when  not  in  use,  put  a 
bouquet  of  fresh  flowers  in  it  every  morning,  if  you  please,  or  do  anything  to  make 
it  attractive,  but  never  dose  it;  better  use  the  fire-boards  for  kindling-wood.  It 
would  be  scarcely  less  absurd  to  take  a  piece  of  elegantly-tinted  court-plaster  and 
stop  up  the  nose,  trusting  to  the  accidental  opening  and  shutting  of  the  mouth  for 
fresh  air,  because  you  thought  it  spoiled  the  looks  of  your  face  to  have  two  such 
great,  ugly  holes  in  it,  than  to  stop  your  fire-place  with  elegantly-tintec;  paper, 
or  a  Japanese  fan,  because  it  looks  better."— Leeds. 


98  PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS. 

29.  In  the  organs  of  voice,  what  parts  have  somewhat  the  same  effect 
as  the  case  of  a  violin  and  the  sounding-board  of  a  piano? 

30.  Why  should  we  be  careful  not  to  "take  the  breath  of  a  sick  per- 
son "  ? 

31.  What  special  care  should  be  taken  with  regard  to  keeping  a 
cellar  clean  ? 

32.  How  is  the  air  strained  as  it  passes  into  the  lungs  ? 

33.  Can  one  really  "  draw  the  air  into  his  lungs"? 

34.  How  often  do  we  breathe  ? 

35.  Describe  some  approved  method  of  ventilation. 

36.  What  is  at  once  the  floor  of  the  chest  and  the  roof  of  the  abdo- 
men ? 

37.  What  would  you  do  in  a  case  of  apparent  death  by  drowning,  or 
by  coal-gas  V    (See  Appendix.) 

38.  What  would  you  do  in  a  case  of  croup,  while  the  doctor  was 
coming?    (See  Appendix.) 

39.  How  would  you  treat  a  severe  burn  ?    (See  Appendix.) 

40.  Describe  the  various  ways  in  which  the  water  in  a  well  is  liable 
to  become  unwholesome. 


V. 

CIRCULATION. 


;  No  rest  this  throbbing  slave  may  ask, 
For  ever  quivering  o'er  his  task, 
While  far  and  ivide  a  crimson  jet 
Leaps  forth  to  fill  the  woven  net, 
Which  in  unnumbered  crossing  tides 
The  flood  of  burning  life  divides, 
Then,  kindling  each  decaying  part, 
Creeps  back  to  find  the  throbbing  heart." 

HOLMES, 


BLACKBOARD      ANALYSIS. 


r  1.  THE  BLOOD. 


2.  ORGAN'S    OP  THE    CIR- 
CULATION. 


1 

I 

0-1 


3.  THE  CIRCULATION 


4.  THE    HEAT    OP    THE 

BODY. 

5.  LIPE  ET  DEATH. 


1.  Its  Composition. 

2.  Its  Uses; 

3.  Transfusion. 

4.  Coagulation. 

1.  Description. 

2.  Movements. 

3.  Auricles  and  Ventricles. 
1.  The     I  (&.  Need  of. 

Heart.  -<  b.  Trieuspid    and  Bi- 

4  The  Valves  -'  cuspid. 

)  c.  The  Strengthening 

of  the  "Valves. 

x  ^d.  Semi-lunar  Valves. 

]  2.  The     ( 1.  Description. 
!  Arteries •{  2.  The  Arterial  System. 
I  3.  The  Pulse. 

3-  The    j  1.  General  Description. 
Veins.  1  2.  Valves. 

4.  The     ( 1.  Description. 
Capilla-^2.  Use. 
ries.     (  3.  Under  the  Microscope. 

il.  The  Lesser. 
2.  The  Greater. 
3.  The  Velocity  of  the  Blood. 

1.  Distribution. 

2.  Regulation. 


6.  CHANGE  OP  OUR  BODIES. 

7.  THE  THREE  VITAL  ORGANS. 

8.  WOXDEUS  OP  THE  HEART. 


9.  THE  LYMPHATIC 
CJLATION. 


CIR- 


1.  Description. 

2.  The  Glands, 
a  The  Lymph. 

4.  The  Office  of  the  Lymphatics. 


10.  DISEASES 

1.  Congestion. 
2.  Inflammation. 
3.  Bleeding. 

1 

4.  Scrofula. 
5.  A  Cold. 
6  Catarrh. 

1.  Effect  of  Alcohol 

upon  the  Circulation. 
"      "    Heart. 

11.   ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS  -j 
AND  NARCOTICS. 

4.      "      " 
5.      "       "       " 

"      "    Blood. 
'    Lungs. 

d 
f 


THE    CIRCULATION. 


rpHE  Organs  of  the  Circulation  are  the  heart,  the 
JL     arteries,  the  veins,  and  the  capillaries. 

The  Blood  is  the  liquid  by  means  of  which  the 
circulation  is  effected.     It  permeates  every  part  of 


Fig.  35. 


A,  corpuscles  of  human  blood>  highly  magnified ;  B,  corpuscles  in  the  blood  of  an 
animal  (a  non-mammal). 

the  body,  except  the  cuticle,  nails,  hair,  etc.  The 
average  quantity  in  each  person  is  about  eighteen 
pounds.*  It  is  composed  of  a  thin,  colorless  liquid, 
the  plasma,  filled  with  red  disks  or  cells,  f  so  small 

*  It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  exact  amount,  and  therefore  authorities  disagree. 
Poster  places  it  at  about  one-thirteenth  of  the  body-weight. 

t  "  There  is  also  one  white  globular  cell  to  every  three  or  four  hundred  red  ones. 
The  blood  is  no  more  red  than  the  water  of  a  stream  would  be  if  you  were  to  fill  it 
with  little  red  fishes.  Suppose  the  fishes  to  be  very,  very  small — as  small  as  a  grain 


104  THE  CIRCULATION. 

that  about  3,500  placed  side  by  side  would  measure 
only  an  inch,  and  it  would  take  16,000  laid  flatwise 
upon  one  another  to  make  a  column  of  that  height. 
Under  the  microscope,  they  are  found  to  be  rounded 
at  the  edge  and  concave  on  both  sides.*  They  have 
a  tendency  to  collect  in  piles  like  rolls  of  coin.  The 
size  and  shape  vary  in  the  blood  of  different 
animals,  f  Disks  are  continually  forming  in  the 
blood,  and  as  constantly  dying — 20,000,000  at  every 
breath  (Draper). 
The  plasma  also  contains  fibrin4  albumen — which 


of  sand — and  closely  crowded  together  through  the  whole  depth  of  the  stream ;  the 
water  would  look  quite  red.  would  it  not  ?  And  this  is  the  way  in  which  blood  looks 
red — only  observe  one  thing ;  a  grain  of  sand  is  a  mountain  in  comparison  with  the 
little  red  fishes  in  the  blood.  If  I  were  to  tell  you  they  measured  about  Si\Ta  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  you  would  not  be  much  wiser ;  so  I  prefer  saying  (by  way  of  giving 
you  a  more  perfect  idea  of  their  minuteness)  that  there  would  be  about  a  million  in 
such  a  drop  of  blood  as  would  hang  on  the  point  of  a  needle.  I  say  so  on  the 
authority  of  a  scientific  microscopist — M.  Bouillet.  Not  that  he  has  ever  counted 
them,  as  you  may  suppose,  any  more  than  I  have  done  ;  but  this  is  as  near  an  ap- 
proach as  can  be  made  by  calculation  to  the  size  of  sj'cij  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter." 
—Jean  Mace. 

*  By  pricking  the  end  of  the  finger  with  a  needle,  we  can  obtain  a  drop  for  exami- 
nation. Place  it  on  the  slide,  cover  with  a  glass,  and  put  it  at  once  under  the  micro- 
ecope.  The  red  disks  will  be  seen  to  group  themselves  in  rows,  while  the  white 
disks  will  seem  to  draw  apart,  and  to  be  constantly  changing  their  form.  After  a 
gradual  evaporation,  the  crystals  (Fig.  36)  may  be  seen.  la  animals,  they  have 
various,  though  distinctive  forms. 

t  Authorities  differ  greatly  in  their  estimate  of  the  size  of  the  disks  (corpuscles) 
in  human  blood.  The  fact  is  that  the  size  varies  in  different  persons,  probably  also 
in  the  same  individual.  Many  of  the  best  microscopists  therefore  hesitate  to  state 
whether  a  particular  specimen  of  blood  belonged  to  a  human  being  or  to  an  animal. 
Others  claim  that  they  can  distinguish  with  accuracy.  Evidently,  the  question  is 
one  of  great  uncertainty.  The  following  statement  of  the  size  of  the  cells  in  different 
animals  is  taken  from  Gulliver's  tables:  Cat,  ,TVt  °f  nn  incn  'n  diameter;  whale, 
,,Vo  :  mou«e,  sfVT :  hog,  ,,y,  ;  camel,  3TV*  ;  sheep,  j^s ;  horse,  ,^5 ;  Virginia  deer, 
S5»«:  dog-faced  baboon,  nVr  5  brown  baboon,  ,j'tji  red  monkey,  ,^5  black 
monkey,  jftn. 

t  It  is  usual  to  say  that  fibrin  is  contained  in  the  blood.  It  probably  does  not 
exist  as  such,  but  there  arc  present  in  the  blood  certain  substances  known  as  para- 
globulin  and  fibrinogin,  which,  by  the  action  of  the  third  substance,  fibrin-ferment, 
under  certain  circumstances,  form  fibrin  and  so  cause  coagulation.  The  exa-i  nature 
of  the  process  by  which  fibrin  is  produced  is  not  understood.  See  Foster's  Text 
Hook  of  Physiology,  p.  22. 


USES  OF  THE  BLOOD.  105 

Fig.  SO. 


Blood  Crystals. 

is  found  nearly  pure  in  the  white  of  an  egg  —  and 
also  various  mineral  substances,  as  iron,*  lime,  mag- 
nesia, phosphorus,  potash,  etc. 

Uses  of  the  Blood. — The  blood  has  been  called 
"liquid  flesh;"  but  it  is  more  than  that,  since  it 
contains  the  materials  for  making  every  organ.  The 
plasma  is  rich  in  mineral  matter  for  the  bones,  and 
in  albumen  for  the  muscles.  The  red  disks  are  the 
air-cells  of  the  blood.  They  contain  the  oxygen  so 
essential  to  every  operation  of  life.  Wherever  there 
is  work  to  be  done  or  repairs  to  be  made,  there  the 
oxygen  is  needed.  It  stimulates  to  action,  and  tears 
down  all  that  is  worn  out.  In  this  process,  it  com- 
bines with  and  actually  burns  out  parts  of  the 
muscles  and  other  tissues,  as  wood  is  burned  in  the 
stove,  f  The  blood,  now  foul  with  the  burned  matter, 

*  Enough  iron  has  been  found  in  the  ashes  of  a  burned  body  to  form  a  mourning 
ring. 

t  For  the  sake  of  simplicity,  perhaps  to  conceal  our  own  ignorance,  we  call  this 
process  '•burning.'"  The  simile  of  a  fire  is  good  so  far  as  it  goes.  But  as  to  the  real 


106  THE  CIRCULATION. 

the  refuse  of  this  fire,  is  caught  up  by  the  circulation, 
and  whirled  back  to  the  lungs,  where  it  is  purified, 
and  again  sent  bounding  on  its  way. 

There  are,  then,  two  different  kinds  of  the  blood  in 
the  body  :  the  red  or  arterial,  and  the  dark  or  venous. 

Transfusion. — As  the  blood  is  really  the  "vital 
fluid,"  efforts  have  been  made  to  restore  the  feeble 
by  infusing  healthy  blood  into  their  veins.  If  blood 
be  drawn  from  an  animal  until  it  is  seemingly  dead, 
and  then  that  from  another  animal  be  injected  into 
its  veins,  its  vitality  will  be  restored.*  This  practice 
became  quite  common  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  operation  was  even  tried  on  human  beings,  and 


nature  of  the  change  which  the  physiologist  briefly  terms  "  oxidation/'  we  know 
nothing.  This  much  only  can  be  asserted  positively.  A  stream  of  oxygen  is  carried 
by  the  blood  to  the  muscles  (in  fact  to  every  tissue  in  the  body),  while,  from  the 
muscles  the  blood  carries  away  a  stream  of  carbonic-acid  and  water.  But  what  takes 
place  in  the  muscles,  when  and  what  chemical  change  occurs,  no  one  can  tell.  We 
see  the  first  and  the  last  stage.  We  know  that  contraction  of  the  muscles  somehow 
comes  about,  oxygen  disappears,  carbonic-acid  appears,  energy  is  released,  and  force 
is  exhibited  as  motion,  heat,  and  electricity.  But  the  intermediate  step  is  hidden. 

There  are  certain  theories,  however,  advanced  that  are  worth  considering.  Some 
physiologists  hold  that  the  muscle  has  the  power  of  taking  up  the  oxygen  from  the 
h-cemojlobin  (a  body  that  comprises  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  red  corpuscles  when 
dried,  and  is  the  oxygen-carrier  of  the  blood),  and  fixing  it,  as  well  as  the  raw  mate- 
rial (food)  furnished  by  the  blood,  thus  forming  a  true  contractile  substance.  The 
breaking-down  or  decomposition  of  this  contractile  piibstance  in  the  muscle, 
sets  free  it*  potential  energy.  The  process  is  gentle  so  long  as  the  muscle  is  at 
rest,  but  becomes  excessive  and  violent  when  contraction  occurs.  (See  Foster's 
Physiology,  p.  118.)  It  is  also  believed  by  some  that  the  chemical  change  in  the 
muscle  partakes  of  a  fermcntivc  character ;  that,  under  the  influence  of  the  proper 
ferments,  the  substances  break  up  into  other  and  simpler  products,  thus  petting  freo 
heat  and  force  ;  and  that  this  chemical  change  is  followed  by  a  secondary  oxidation 
by  the  oxygen  in  the  arterial  blood,  thereby  forming  carbonic-acid  and  water,  as  in 
all  putrefactive  processes.  But  these  and  other  views  are  not  as  yet  fully  understood ; 
while  they  utterly  fail  to  tell  us  how  a  collection  of  simple  cells,  filled  merely  with  a 
semi-fluid  mass  of  matter,  can  contract  and  set  free  muscular  power.  The  common- 
ness of  this  act  hides  from  us  its  wonderful  nature.  But  here,  hidden  in  the  cell- 
Nature's  tiny  laboratory— lies  the  mystery  of  life.  Before  its  closed  door  we  ponder 
in  vain,  confessing  the  un?killfnlne<»s  of  our  labor,  and  fearing  all  the  while  L-st  the 
Secret  of  the  Cell  will  always  elude  our  search. 

*  Brown-Se"qnard  tells  of  a  curious  instance  in  which  the  blood  of  a  living  dog 
was  transferred  into  one  just  dead.  The  animal  rose  on  its  feet  and  wagged  its  tail, 
but  died  a  second  time  twelve  and  one-hslf  hours  *ft«rwtrd. 


THE   HEART.  107 

the  most  extravagant  hopes  were  entertained.  A 
maniac  was  restored  to  reason  by  the  blood  of  a  calf. 
But  many  fatal  accidents  occurring,  it  was  forbidden' 
by  law,  and  soon  fell  into  disuse.  It  has,  however, 
been  successfully  practiced  in  several  cases  within 
the  last  few  years,  and  is  a  method  still  in  repute 
for  saving  life. 

^Coagulation. — When  blood  is  exposed  to  the  air,  it 
coagulates.  This  is  caused  by  the  solidifying  of  the 
fibrin,  which,  entangling  the  disks,  forms  the 
"clot."  The  remaining  clear,  yellow  liquid  is  the 
serum.  The  value  of  this  peculiar  property  of  the 
blood  can  hardly  be  over-estimated.  The  coagula- 
tion soon  checks  all  ordinary  cases  of  bleeding.* 
When  a  wound  is  made,  and  bleeding  commences, 
the  fibrin  forms  a  temporary  plug,  as  it  were,  which 
is  absorbed  when  the  healing  process  is  finished. 
Thus  we  see  how  a  Divine  foresight  has  provided  not 
only  for  the  ordinary  wants  of  the  body,  but  also  for 
the  accidents  to  which  it  is  liable,  f 

The  Heart  is  the  engine  which  propels  the  blood. 
It  is  a  hollow,  pear-shaped  muscle,  about  the  size  of 
the  fist.  It  hangs,  point  downward,  just  to  the  left 
of  the  center  of  the  chest.  (See  Fig.  31.)  It  is  en- 
closed in  a  loose  sac  of  serous  membrane,  J  called  the 


*  In  the  case  of  the  lower  animals,  which  have  no  means  of  stopping  hemorrhages 
as  we  have,  the  coagulation  is  far  more  rapid. 

t  The  fibrin  is  not  an  essential  ingredient  of  the  blood.  All  the  functions  of  life 
are  regularly  performed  in  people  whose  blood  lacks  fibrin ;  and,  in  cases  of  transfu- 
sion, where  blood  deprived  of  its  fibrin  was  used,  the  vivifying  influence  seeined  to 
be  the  same.  Its  office,  therefore,  must  mainly  be  to  stanch  any  hemorrhage  which 
may  occur.— Flint. 

t  The  mucous  membrane  lines  the  open  cavities  of  the  body ;  the  serous,  the 
closed.  The  pericardium  is  a  sac  composed  of  two  layers — a  fibrous  membrane  on 
the  outside,  and  a  serous  one  on  the  inside.  The  latter  covers  the  external  surface 


108 


THE  CIRCULATION. 


pericardium  (peri,  about;   and  kardia,  the  heart), 
This  secretes  a  lubricating  fluid,  and  is  smooth  as 
satin. 
The  Movements  of  the  Heart  consist  of  an  alter- 


FlQ.  57. 


The  Heart. 


A,  the  right  ventricle  ;  B,  the  left  ventricle ;  C,  the  right  auricte . 
D,  the  left  auricle. 


nate    contraction    and    expansion.     The    former   is 
called   the  sys'to-le,  and  the  latter  the  di-as'to-te.^ 

of  the  heart,  and  is  reflected  back  upon  itself  in  order  to  form,  like  all  the  membranes 
of  this  nature,  a  sac  without  an  opening.  The  heart  is  thus  covered  by  the  pecicar- 
dial  sac,  but  not  contained  inside  its  cavity.  A  correct  idea  may  be  formed  of  the 
disposition  of  the  pericardium  around  the  heart  by  recalling  a  very  common  and  very 
•convenient,  though  now  discarded  head-dress,  the  cotton  night  cap.  The  pericardium 
encloses  the  heart  exactly  as  this  cap  covered  our  forefathers'  heads.—  Wonders  ofth$ 
Human  Body. 


AURICLES  AND  VENTRICLES.  109 

During  the  diastole,  the  blood  flows  into  the  heart,  to 
be  expelled  by  the  systole.  The  alternation  of  these 
movements  constitutes  the  beating  of  the  heart 
which  we  hear  so  distinctly  between  the  fifth  and 
sixth  ribs.* 

Fig.  38. 


Chambers  of  the  Heart.  A,  right  ventricle;  B,  left  ventricle;  C,  right  auricle; 
D,  left  auricle;  E,  tricuspid  valve;  F,  bicuspid  valve;  G,  semi-lunar  valves;  H, 
valve  of  the  aorta ;  I,  inferior  vena  cava  ;  K,  superior  vena  cava  ;  L,  L,  pulmonary 
veins. 

The  Auricles  and  Ventricles. — The  heart  is  divided 
into  four  chambers.  In  an  adult,  each  holds  about 
a  wine-glassful..  The  upper  ones,  from  appendages 
on  the  outside  resembling  the  ears  of  a  dog,  are 

*  "  Two  sounds  are  heard  if  we  put  our  ear  over  the  heart, — the  first  and  longer 
as  the  blood  is  leaving  the  organ,  the  second  as  it  falls  into  the  pockets  of  the  two 
arteries,  and  the  valves  then  striking  together  cause  it.  The  first  sound  is  mainly 
the  noise  made  by  the  muscular  tissue.  During  the  first,  the  two  ventricles  contract ; 
during  the  second,  the  two  auricles  do  so.  The  hand  may  feel  the  heart  striking  the 
ribs  as  it  contracts, — a  feeling  called  the  impulse,  or,  if  quicker  and  stronger  than 
usual,  palpitation.  This  is  not  always  a  sign  of  disease,  but  in  hypochondriacs  is 
often  an  effect  of  the  mind  on  the  nerves  of  the  heart." — Mapother. 


110  THE  CIRCULATION. 

called  auricles  (aures,  ears) ;  the  lower  ones  are 
termed  ventricles.  The  auricle  and  ventricle  on  each 
side  communicate  with  each  other,  but  the  right  and 
left  halves  of  the  heart  are  entirely  distinct,  and  per- 
form different  offices.  The  left  side  propels  the  red 
blood  ;  and  the  right,  the  dark. 

The  auricles  are  merely  reservoirs  to  receive  the 
blood,  (the  left  auricle,  as  it  filters  in  bright  and 
pure  from  the  lungs ;  the  right,  as  it  returns  dark 
and  foul  from  the  tour  of  the  body),  and  to  furnish 
it  to  the  ventricles  as  they  need.  Their  work  being 
so  light,  their  walls  are  comparatively  thin  and 
weak.  On  the  other  hand,  the  ventricles  force  the 
blood,  (the  left,  to  all  parts  of  the  body  ;  the  right, 
to  the  lungs),  and  are,  therefore,  made  very  strong. 
As  the  left  ventricle  drives  the  blood  so  much  fur- 
ther than  the  right,  it  is  correspondingly  thicker 
and  stronger. 

Need  of  Valves  in  the  Heart. — As  the  auricles  do 
not  need  to  contract  with  much  force  simply  to 
empty  their  contents  into  the  ventricles  below  them, 
there  is  no  demand  for  any  special  contrivance  to 
prevent  the  blood  from  setting  back  the  wrong  way. 
Indeed,  it  would  naturally  run  down  into  the  ven- 
tricle, which  is  at  that  moment  open  to  receive  it. 
But,  when  the  strong  ventricles  contract,  especially 
the  left  one  which  must  drive  the  blood  to  the 
extremities,  some  arrangement  is  necessary  to  pre- 
vent its  escaping  into  the  auricle  again.  Besides, 
when  they  expand,  the  "suction  power"  would 
tend  to  draw  back  again  from  the  arteries  all  the 
blood  just  forced  out.  This  difficulty  is  obviated  by 


AND  BICUSPID  VALVES.  Ill 

Fig.  89. 


Diagram  showing  the  peculiar  Fibrous  Structure  of  the  Heart  and  the  Shape  of  the 
Valves.  A,  tricusp'id  valve  ;  B,  bicuspid  valve ;  C,  semi-lunar  valves  of  the  aorta;  D, 
semi-lunar  valves  of  the  pulmonary  artery. 

means  of  little  doors,  or  valves,  which  will  not  let  it 
go  the  wrong  way.* 

The  Tricuspid  and  Bicuspid  Valves.  —  At  the 
opening  into  the  right  ventricle,  is  a  valve  consisting 
of  three  folds  or  flaps  of  membrane,  whence  it  is 
called  the  tri-cuspid  valve  (tri,  three ;  and  cuspides, 
points),  and  in  the  left  ventricle,  one  containing  two 
flaps,  and  named  the  bi-cuspid  valve.  These  hang 
so  loosely  as  to  oppose  no  resistance  to  the  passage 
of  the  blood  into  the  ventricles  ;  but,  if  any  attempts 
to  go  the  other  way,  it  gets  between  the  flaps  and 
the  walls  of  the  heart,  and,  driving  them  outward, 
closes  the  orifice. 

*  The  heart  of  an  ox  or  a  sheep  may  be  used  to  show  the  chambers  and  valves. 
The  aorta  should  be  cut  as  far  as  possible  from  the  heart,  and  then  by  pumping  in 
water  the  perfection  of  these  valves  will  be  finely  exhibited.  Cutting  the  heart 
across  near  the  middle  will  show  the  greater  thickness  of  the  left  ventricle. 


112  THE  CIRCULATION. 

These  Flaps  are  Strengthened  like  sails  by  slender 
cords,  which  prevent  their  being  pressed  back 
through  the  opening.  If  the  cords  were  attached 
directly  to  the  walls  of  the  heart,  they  would  be 
loosened  in  the  systole,  and  so  become  useless  when 
most  needed.  They  are,  therefore,  fastened  to  little 
muscular  pillars  projecting  from  the  sides  of  the 
ventricle ;  when  that  contracts  the  pillars  contract 
also,  and  thus  the  cords  are  held  tight. 

The  Semi-lunar  Valves. — In  the  passages  outward 
from  the  ventricles,  are  valves,  called  from  their 
peculiar  half -moon  shape  semi-lunar  valves  (semi, 
half  ;  Luna,  Moon).  Each  consists  of  three  little 
pocket-shaped  folds  of  membrane,  with  their  open- 
ings in  the  direction  which  the  blood  is  to  take. 
When  it  sets  back,  they  fill,  and,  swelling  out,  close 
the  passage  (Fig.  40). 

The  Arteries*  are  the  tube-like  canals  which  convey 
the  blood  from  the  heart.  They  carry  the  red  blood 
(see  note,  p.  118).  They  are  composed  of  an  elastic 
tissue,  which  yields  at  every  throb  of  the  heart,  and 
then  slowly  contracting  again,  keeps  up  the  motion 
of  the  blood  until  the  next  systole.  The  elasticity 
of  the  arteries  acts  like  the  air-chamber  of  a  fire- 
engine,  which  converts  the  intermittent  jerks  of  the 
brakes  or  pump  into  the  steady  stream  of  the  hose- 
nozzle. 

The  arteries  sometimes  communicate  by  means  of 
branches  or  by  meshes  of  loops,  so  that  if  the  blood 
be  blocked  in  one,  it  can  pass  round  through  another, 

*  Aer,  air :  and  tereo,  I  contain— so  named  because  after  death  they  contain  air 
only,  and  hence  the  ancients  supposed  them  to  be  air-tubes  leading  through  the 
body. 


THE  PULSE.  113 

and  so  get  by  the  obstacle.*  When  an  artery  pene- 
trates a  muscle,  it  is  often  protected  by  a  sheath  or 
by  fibrous  rings,  which  prevent  its  being  pulled  out 
of  place  or  compressed  by  the  play  of  the  muscles. 

The  arteries  are  generally  located  as  far  as  possi- 
ble beneath  the  surface,  out  of  harm's  way,  and 
hence  are  found  closely  hugging  the  bones  or  creep- 
ing through  safe  passages  provided  for  them.  They 
are  generally  nearly  straight,  and  take  the  shortest 
routes  to  the  parts  which  they  are  to  supply  with 
blood. 

The  Arterial  System  starts  from  the  left  ventricle 
by  a  single  trunk — the  aorta — which,  after  giving 
off  branches  to  the  head,  sweeps  back  of  the  chest 
with  a  bold  curve — the  arch  of  the  aorta  (c,  Fig.  34) 
— and  thence  runs  downward  (/),  dividing  and  sub- 
dividing, like  a  tree,  into  numberless  branches, 
which,  at  last,  penetrate  every  nook  and  corner  of 
the  body. 

The  Pulse. — At  the  wrist  (k,  radial  artery)  and  on 
the  temple  (temporal  artery)  we  can  feel  the  expan- 
sion of  *the  artery  by  each  little  wave  of  blood  set  in 
motion  by  the  contraction  of  the  heart.  In  health, 
there  are  about  seventy-two  f  pulsations  per  minute. 
They  increase  with  excitement  or  inflammation, 

*  This  occurs  especially  about  the  joints,  where  it  serves  to  maintain  the  circula- 
tion during  the  bending  of  a  limb,  or  when  the  main  artery  is  obstructed  by  disease 
or  injury,  or  has  been  tied  by  the  surgeon.  In  the  last  case,  the  small  adjacent  arte- 
ries gradually  enlarge,  and  form  what  is  called  a  collateral  circulation. 

t  This  number  varies  much  with  age,  sex,  and  individuals.  Napoleon's  pulse  is 
said  to  have  been  only  40,  while  it  is  not  infrequent  to  find  a  healthy  pulse  at  100  or 
over.  Shame  makes  the  heart  send  more  blood  to  the  blushing  check,  and  fear 
almost  stops  it.  The  will  cannot  check  the  heart.  There  is  said,  however,  to  have 
been  a  notable  exception  to  this  in  the  case  of  one  Col.  Townsend,  of  Dublin,  who, 
after  having  succeeded  several  times  in  stopping  the  pulsation,  at  last  lost  his  life  in 
the  act. 


114  THE  CIRCULATION. 

weaken  with  loss  of  vigor,  and  are  modified  by 
nearly  every  disease.  The  physician,  therefore, 
finds  the  pulse  a  good  index  of  the  state  of  the  sys- 
tem and  the  character  of  the  disorder. 

The  Veins  are  the  tube-like  canals  which  convey 
the  blood  to  the  heart.*  They  carry  the  dark  or 
venous  blood  (note,  p.  118).  As  they  do  not  receive 
the  direct  impulse  of  the  heart,  their  walls  are  made 
much  thinner  and  less  elastic  than  those  of  the  arte- 
ries. At  first  small,  they  increase  in  size  and  dimin- 
ish in  number  as  they  gradually  pour  into  one  an- 
other, like  tiny  rills  collecting  to  form  two  rivers, 
the  vena  cava  ascending  and  the  vena  cava  descend- 
ing (I,  m,  Fig.  34),  which  empty  into  the  right  auricle. 

Some  of  the  veins  creep  along  under  the  skin, 
where  they  can  be  seen,  as  in  the  back  of  the  hand  ; 
while  others  accompany  the  arteries,  some  of  which 
have  two  or  more  of  these  companions. 

Valves  similar  in  construction  to  those  already 
described  (the  semi-lunar  valves  of  the  heart, 
page  112)  are  placed  at  convenient  intervals, 
in  order  to  guide  the  blood  in  its  course,  and 
prevent  its  setting  backward.!  We  can  easily 

*  There  is  one  exception  to  the  general  coarse  of  the  veins.  The  portal  vein  car- 
ries the  blood  from  the  digestive  organs  to  the  liver,  where  it  is  acted  npon,  thence 
poured  into  the  ascending  vena  cava,  and  goes  back  to  the  heart. 

t  "Too  much  standing,  or  tight  elastics,  often  swell  and  spoil  the  valves  of  the 
veins  in  the  leg;  they  then  become  varicose,  or  permanently  enlarged,  and,  if  they 
burst,  the  bleeding  may  be  profuse  and  even  dangerous.  Raising  the  leg  and  pressing 
the  finger  on  the  bleeding  spot  will  stay  it.  Walking  does  not  encourage  this  disease, 
for  the  muscles  force  on  the  venous  blood.  Clerks  who  are  subject  to  varicose  veins 
should  have  seats  behind  the  counters  where  they  may  rest  when  not  actually 
employed.  A  deep  breath  helps  the  flow  in  the  veins,  and  a  wound  may  suck  in  air 
with  fatal  effect.  A  maimed  horse  is  most  mercifully  killed  by  blowing  a  bubble  of 
air  into  the  veins  of  his  neck.  As  the  pressure  deep  in  the  sea  would  burst  valves, 
there  are  none  in  the  whale,  and  hence  a  small  wound  by  the  harpoon  causes  him  to 
bleed  to  death.  "—MapotAer. 


1-HE  CAPILLARIES.  115 


examine  the  working  of  these  valves.    On  baring 

the  arm,  blue  veins  may  be  seen  running  along  the 

arm     toward     the     hand. 

Their  diameter  is  tolerably 

even,   and  they  gradually 

decrease   in    size.     If  now 

the  finger    be    pressed  on 

the  upper  part  of  one    of 

these     veins,      and      then  Valves  of  ihe  Veins. 

passed  downward  so  as  to 

drive  its  blood  backward,  swellings  like  little  knots 

will  make  their  appearance.    Each  of  these  marks 

the  location  of  a  valve,  which  is  closed  by  the  blood 

we  push  before  our  finger.     Remove  the  pressure, 

and  the  valve  will  swing  open,  the  blood  set  for- 

ward, and  the  vein  collapse  to  its  former  size. 

The  Capillaries  (capillus,  a  hair)  form  a  fine  net- 
work of  tubes,  connecting  the  ends  of  the  arteries 
with  the  veins.  They  blend,  however,  with  the 
extremities  of  these  two  systems,  so  that  it  is  not 
easy  to  tell  just  where  an  artery  ends  and  a  vein 
begins.  So  closely  are  they  placed,  that  we  cannot 
prick  the  flesh  with  a  needle  without  injuring,  per- 
haps, hundreds  of  them.  The  air-cells  of  the  blood 
deposit  there  their  oxygen,  and  receive  carbonic 
acid,  while  in  the  delicate  capillaries  of  the  lungs* 
they  give  up  their  load  of  carbonic  acid  in  exchange 
for  oxygen. 

If,  by  means  of  a  microscope,  we  examine  the 
transparent  web  of  a  frog's  foot,  we  can  trace  the 

*  The  capillary  tubes  are  there  so  fine  that  the  disks  of  the  blood  have  to  go  one 
by  one,  and  are  sadly  squeezed  at  that.  However,  their  elasticity  enables  them  to 
resume  their  old  shape  as  soon  as  they  have  escaped  from  this  labyrinth. 


116 


THE  CIECULATIOK. 


Fig.  U. 


ABC 

Circulation  of  the  Blood  in  the  Web  of  a  Frog's  Foot,  highly  magnified.  A,  an 
artery  ;  B,  capillaries  crowded  with  disks,  owing  to  a  rupture  just  above,  where  th« 
disks  are  jammed  into  an  adjacent  mesh ;  C,  a  deeper  vein ;  the  black  spots  are  pig- 
ment cells. 

route  of  the  blood.  *  It  is  an  experiment  of  wonder- 
ful interest.  The  crimson  stream,  propelled  by  the 
heart,  rushes  through  the  arteries,  until  it  reaches 
the  intricate  meshes  of  the  capillaries.  Here  it 
breaks  into  a  thousand  tiny  rills.  We  can  see  the 
disks  winding  in  single  file  through  the  devious 
passages,  darting  hither  and  thither,  now  pausing, 
swaying  to  and  fro  with  an  uncertain  motion,  and 
anon  dashing  ahead,  until,  at  last,  gathered  in  the 
veins,  the  blood  sets  steadily  back  on  its  return  to 
the  heart. 

The  Circulation  f  consists  of  two  parts— the  lesser, 
and  the  greater. 

*  With  small  splints  and  twine,  a  frog's  foot  can  bo  easily  stretched  and  tied  so 
that  the  transparent  web  can  be  placed  on  the  table  of  the  microscope. 

t  The  circulation  of  the  blood  was  discovered  by  Harvey  in  1619.  For  several 
years,  he  did  not  dare  to  publish  his  belief  When  it  became  known,  he  was  bitterly 
persecuted,  and  his  practice  as  a  physician  greatly  decreased  in  consequence.  He 
lived,  however,  to  see  his  theory  universally  adopted,  and  his  name  honored. 
Harvey  is  paid  to  have  declared  that  no  man  over  forty  years  of  age  accepted  his 
views. 


THE  LESSER  CIRCULATION. 


lit 


A.  THE  LESSER  CIRCULATION.  —  The  dark  blood 
from  the  veins  collects  in  the  right  auricle,  and, 
going  through  the  tricuspid  valve,  empties  into  the 


Fig. 


descending  (superior) , 
ventricle  ;  E,  pulmorx...  „ 
H,  left  ventricle ;  I,  K,  aorta. 


right  ventricle.  Thence  it  is  driven  past  the  semi- 
lunar  valves,  through  the  pulmonary  artery,  to  the 
lungs.  After  circulating  through  the  fine  capil- 
laries of  the  air-cells,  it  is  returned,  bright  and 


THE  CIRCULATION. 

red,  through  the  four  pulmonary  veins,*  to  the  left 
auricle. 

2.  THE  GREATER  CIRCULATION.  —  From  the  left 
auricle,  the  blood  is  forced  past  the  bicuspid  valve 
to  the  left  ventricle  ;  thence  it  is  driven  through  the 
semi-lunar  valves  into  the  great  aorta,  the  main 
trunk  of  the  arterial  system.  Passing  through  the 
arteries,  capillaries,  and  veins,  it  returns  through 
the  venae  cavae,  ascending  and  descending,  gathers 
again  in  the  right  auricle,  and  so  completes  the 
."grand  round"  of  the  body.  Both  of  these  circu- 
lations are  going  on  constantly,  as  the  two  auricles 
contract,  and  the  two  ventricles  expand  simulta- 
,  neously,  and  vice  versa. 

/  The  Velocity  of  the  Blood  varies  so  much  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body,  and  is  influenced  by  so 
many  circumstances,  that  it  cannot  be  calculated 
with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  a  portion  of  the  blood  will  make  the  tour  of  the 
body  in  about  twenty-three  seconds  (Flint),  and  that 
the  entire  mass  passes  through  the  heart  in  from 
one  to  two  minutes,  f 

Distribution  and  Regulation  of  the  Heat  of  the 
Body. — 1.  DISTRIBUTION. — The  natural  temperature 

*  It  is  noticeable  that  the  pulmonary  Bet  of  veins  circulates  red  blood,  and  the 
pulmonary  set  of  arteries  circulates  dark  blood.  Both  are  connected  with  the 
lungs. 

t  If  a  salt  which  can  be  easily  recognized  be  inserted  in  one  of  the  jugular  veins 
of  a  dog,  and  blood  be  drawn  as  quickly  as  possible  from  the  opposite  jugular,  the 
substance  will  be  detected  in  from  twenty  to  thirty  seconds ;  having,  in  this  brief 
time,  passed  to  the  right  heart,  thence  to  the  lungs,  back  to  the  left  heart,  through 
the  arteries,  capillaries,  and  veins  of  the  fece  and  neck,  and  into  the  jugular  vein. 
The  total  amount  of  blood  in  an  adult  of  average  weight  is  about  eighteen  pounds. 
Dividing  this  by  five  ounces,  the  quantity  discharged  by  the  left  ventricle  at  each 
systole,  gives  fifty-eight  pulsations  as  the  number  necessary  to  transmit  all  the  blood 
in  the  body.  This,  however,  is  an  extremely  unreliable  basis  of  calculation,  as  the 
rapidity  of  the  blood  is  itself  so  variable. 


HEAT  OF  THE  BODY.  119 

is  not  far  from  98°.*  This  is  maintained,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  by  the  action  of  the  oxygen  within  us. 
Each  capillary  tube  is  a  tiny  stove,  where  oxygen  is 
combining  with  the  tissues  of  the  body  (see  note, 
p.  105).  Every  contraction  of  a  muscle  develops  heat, 
the  latent  heat  being  set  free  by  the  breaking  up  of 
the  tissue.  The  warmth  so  produced  is  distributed 
by  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Thus  the  arteries, 
veins,  and  capillaries  form  a  series  of  hot-water 
pipes,  through  which  the  heated  liquid  is  forced  by 
a  pump — the  heart — while  the  heat  is  kept  up,  not 
by  a  central  furnace  and  boiler,  but  by  a  multi- 
tude of  little  firea  placed  here  and  there  along  its 
course. 

2.  REGULATION. — The  temperature  of  the  body  is 
regulated  by  means  of  the  pores  of  the  skin  and  the 
mucous  membrane  in  the  air-passages.  When  the 
system  becomes  too  warm,  the  blood-vessels  on  the 
surface  expand,  the  blood  fills  them,  the  fluid  exudes 
into  the  perspiratory  glands,  pours  out  upon  the  ex- 
terior, and  by  evaporation  cools  the  body.f  When 
the  temperature  of  the  body  is  too  low,  the  vessels 
contract,  less  blood  goes  to  the  surface,  the  perspi- 
ration decreases,  and  the  loss  of  heat  by  evaporation 
diminishes.  £ 

*  "  The  average  temperature  is,  however,  easily  departed  from.  Through  some 
trivial  cause  the  cooling  agencies  may  be  interfered  with,  and  then,  the  heating  pro- 
cesses getting  the  superiority,  a  high  temperature  or  fever  comes  on.  Or  the  reverse 
may  ensue.  In  Asiatic  cholera,  the  constitution  of  the  blood  is  so  changed  that  its 
disks  can  no  longer  carry  oxygen  into  the  system,  the  heat-making  processes  are  put 
a  stop  to,  and,  the  temperature  declining,  the  body  becomes  of  a  marble  coldness 
characteristic  of  that  terrible  disease."— Draper. 

t  Just  as  water  sprinkled  on  the  floor  cools  a  room.    (Physics,  page  191.) 
%  One  can  go  into  an  oven  where  bread  is  baking,  or  into  the  arctic  regions 
where  the  mountains  are  snow  and  the  rivers  ice,  with  equal  impunity.    Even  by 
fbese  extremes  the  temperature  of  the  blo.od  will  be  but  slightly  affected.   In  the  one 


120  THE   CIRCULATION. 

Life  by  Death.  — The  body  is  being  incessantly 
corroded,  and  portions  borne  away  by  the  tireless 
oxygen.  The  scales  of  the  epidermis  are  constantly 
falling  off  and  being  replaced  by  secretion  from  the 
c'utis.  The  disks  of  the  blood  die,  and  new  ones 
spring  into  being.  On  the  continuance  of  this  inter- 
change depend  our  health  and  vigor.  Every  act  is 
a  destructive  one.  Not  a  bend  of  the  finger,  not  a 
wink  of  the  eye,  not  a  thought  of  the  brain  but  is 
at  some  expense  of  the  machine  itself.  Every  pro- 
cess of  life  is  thus  a  process  of  death.  The  more 
rapidly  this  change  goes  on,  and  fresh,  vigorous 
tissue  takes  the  place  of  the  old,  the  more  elasticity 
and  strength  we  possess. 

Change  of  our  Bodies. — There  is  a  belief  that  our 
bodies  change  once  in  seven  years.  From  the  nature 
of  the  case,  the  rate  must  vary  with  the  labor  we 
perform ;  the  organs  most  used  altering  oftenest. 
Probably  the  parts  of  the  body  in  incessant  employ- 
ment are  entirely  reorganized  many  times  within  a 
single  year.* 

The  Three  Vital  Organs.  —  Death  is  produced  by 
the  stoppage  of  the  action  of  any  one  of  the  three 
organs — the  heart,  the  lungs,  or  the  brain.  They 
have,  therefore,  been  termed  the  "Tripod  of  Life." 
Really,  however,  as  Huxley  has  remarked,  "Life 
has  but  two  legs  to  stand  upon."  If  respiration 


case,  the  flood-gates  of  perspiration  will  be  opened  and  the  superfluous  heat  expended 
in  turning  the  water  to  vapor  ;  and,  in  the  other,  they  will  be  tightly^closcd  and  all 
the  heat  retained. 

*  To  use  a  homely  simile,  our  bodies  are  like  the  Irishman's  knife,  which,  after 
having  had  several  new  blades,  and  at  least  one  new  handle,  was  yet  the  same 
pld  knife, 


WONDEKS  OF   THE   HEART.  121 

and  circulation  be  kept  up  artificially,  the  removal 
of  the  brain  will  not  produce  death.* 

Wonders  of  the  Heart. — The  ancients  thought  the 
heart  to  be  the  seat  of  love.  There  were  located  the 
purity  and  goodness  as  well  as  the  evil  passions  of 
the  soul,  f  Modern  science  has  found  the  seat  of  the 
mental  powers  to  be  in  the  brain.  But,  while  it  has 
thus  robbed  the  heart  of  its  romance,  it  has  revealed 
wonders  which  eclipse  all  the  mysteries  of  the  past. 
This  marvelous  little  engine  throbs  on  continually 
at  the  rate  of  100,000  beats  per  day,  40,000,000  per 
year,  often  3,000,000,000  without  a  single  stop.  It  is 
the  most  powerful  of  machines.  "  Its  daily  work  is 
equal  to  one-third  that  of  all  the  muscles.  If  it 
should  expend  its  entire  force  in  lifting  its  own 
weight  vertically,  it  would  rise  20,000  feet  in  an 
hour."J  Its  vitality  is  amazing.  Lay  upon  a  table 
the  heart  from  a  living  sturgeon,  all  palpitating 
with  life,  and  it  will  beat  for  days  as  if  itself  a 
living  creature.  The  most  tireless  of  organs  while 
life  exists,  it  is  one  of  the  last  to  yield  when  life 
expires.  So  long  as  a  flutter  lingers  at  the  heart, 
we  know  the  spark  of  being  is  not  quite  extin- 
guished, and  there  is  hope  of  restoration.  During 
a  life  such  as  we  sometimes  see,  it  has  propelled 

*  When  death  really  does  take  place,  i.  e.,  when  the  vital  organs  are  stopped,  it  is 
noticeable  that  the  tissues  do  not  die  for  some  time  thereafter.  If  suitable  stimu- 
lants be  applied,  as  the  galvanic  battery,  transfusion  of  blood,  etc.,  the  muscles  may 
be  made  to  contract,  and  many  of  the  phenomena  of  life  be  exhibited. 

t  Our  common  words,  hearty,  large-hearted,  courage  (cor,  the  heart),  are  remains 
of  this  fanciful  theory. 

\  "  The  greatest  exploit  ever  accomplished  by  a  locomotive,  was  to  lift  itself 
through  less  than  one-eighth  of  that  distance  "  Vast  and  constant  as  is  this  process, 
BO  perfect  is  the  machinery  that  there  are  persons  who  do  not  even  know  where  the 
heart  lies  until  disease  or  accident  reveals  its  location. 


122  THE  CIRCULATION. 

half  a  million  tons  of  blood,  yet  repaired  itself  as 
it  has  wasted,  during  its  patient,  unfaltering  labor. 
The  play  of  its  valves  and  the  rhythm  of  its  throb 
have  never  failed  until  at  the  command  of  the 
great  Master- Workman  the  "wheels  of  life  have 
stood  still."* 

Fig.  1,3. 


Lymphatics  of  the  head  and  neck,  showing  the  glands,  and,  B,  the  thoracic  duct.  a« 
it  empties  into  tlw  *tfi  innominate  vein^  at  the  junction  of  the  left  jugular  and  sub- 
clavian  veins.  j  ^»  ^ 

>  "~7 

The  Lymphatic  Circulation  is  intimately  connected 
with  that  of  the  blood.  It  is,  however,  more  delicate 
in  its  organization,  and  less  thoroughly  understood. 
Nearly  every  part  of  the  body  is  permeated  by  a 

*  "Onr  brains  are  seventy-five  year  clocks.  The  Angel  of  Life  winds  them  up 
once  for  all,  then  closes  the  case,  and  gives  the  key  into  the  hand  of  the  Angel  of  the 
Resurrection.  Tic-tac !  tic-tac !  go  the  wheels  of  thought ;  our  will  cannot  stop 
them,  they  cannot  stop  themselves  ;  sleep  cannot  stop  them  ;  madness  only  makes 
them  go  faster ;  death  alone  can  break  into  the  case,  and,  seizing  the  ever-swinging 
pendulum  which  we  call  the  heart,  silence  at  last  the  clicking  of  the  terrible  escape- 
ment we  have  carried  so  long  beneath  our  wrinkled  foreheads."— ffotmesr 


OFFICE  OF  THE  LYMPHATICS. 


123 


second  series  of  capillaries,  closely 
interlaced  with  the  blood-capilla- 
ries already  described,  and 
termed  the  Lymphatic  system. 
The  larger  number  converge  into 
the  thoracic  duct — a  small  tube, 
about  the  size  of  a  goose-quill, 
which  empties  into  the  great 
veins  of  the  neck  (Fig.  43).  Along 
their  course  the  lymphatics  fre- 
quently pass  through  glands, — 
hard,  pinkish  bodies  of  all  sizes, 
from  that  of  a  hemp-seed  to  an 
almond.  These  glands  are  often 
enlarged  by  disease,  and  then  are 
easily  felt. 

THE  LYMPH,  which  circulates 
through  the  lymphatics  like  blood 
through  the  veins,  is  a  thin, 
colorless  liquid,  very  like  the 
&erum.  This  fluid,  probably  in 
great  measure  an  overflow  from 
the  blood-vessels,  is  gathered  up 
by  the  lymphatics,  undergoes- in 
the  glands  some  process  of  prepa- 
ration not  well  understood,  and  is 
then  returned  to  the  circulation. 

Office  of  the  Lymphatics. — It  is 
thought  that  portions  of  the 
waste  matter  of  the  body  capable  of  further  use  are 
thus,  by  a  wise  economy,  retained  and  elaborated  in 
the  system. 

The  lacteals,  a  class  of  lymphatics  which  will  be 


Lymphatics  in  the  leg,  with 
glands  at  the  hip. 


124  THE  CIRCULATION. 

described  under  Digestion  (p.  153),  aid  in  taking 
up  the  food;  after  a  meal  they  become  milk-white. 
In  the  lungs,  the  lymphatics  are  abundant ;  some- 
times absorbing  the  poison  of  disease,  and  diffusing 
it  through  the  system.* 

The  lymphatics  of  the  skin  we  have  already 
spoken  of  as  producing  the  phenomena  of  absorp- 
tion, f  Nature  in  her  effort  to  heal  a  cut  deposits  an 
excess  of  matter  to  fill  up  the  breach.  Soon,  the 
lymphatics  go  to  work  and  remove  the  surplus  ma- 
terial f  (Tocher  parts  of  the  body. 

Animals  that  hibernate  are  supported  during  the 
winter  by  the  fat  which  their  absorbents  carry  into 
the  circulation  from  the  extra  supply  they  have  laid 
up  during  the  summer.  In  famine  or  in  sickness,  a 
man  unconsciously  consumes  his  own  flesh. 

Diseases,  etc. — 1.  CONGESTION  is  an  unnatural  ac- 
cumulation of  blood  in  any  part  of  the  body.  The 
excess  is  indicated  by  the  redness.  If  we  put  our 
feet  in  hot  water,  the  capillaries  will  expand  by  the 
heat,  and  the  blood  set  that  way  to  fill  them.  The 
red  nose  and  purplish  face  of  the  drunkard  show  a 
congestion  of  the  capillaries.  Those  vessels  have 
lost  their  power  of  contraction,  and  so  are  perma- 
nently increased  in  size  and  filled  with  blood. 
Blushing  is  a  temporary  congestion.  The  capillaries 
being  expanded  only  for  an  instant  by  the  nervous 
excitement,  contract  again  and  expel  the  blood.  J 

*  Persons  have  thus  been  poisoned  by  tiny  particles  of  arsenic  which  evaporate 
from  green  wall  paper,  and  float  in  the  air. 

t  Pain  is  often  relieved  by  infusing  under  the  cuticle  a  solution  of  morphine, 
which  is  taken  up  by  the  absorbents,  and  so  carried  through  the  system. 

J  "  Blushing  is  a  purely  local  modification  of  the  circulation  of  this  kind,  and  it  will 
be  instructive  to  consider  how  a  blush  is  brought  about.  An  emotion— sometimes 


DISEASES,   ETC.  125 

2.  INFLAMMATION    means  simply  a  burning.      If 
there  is  irritation  or  an  injury  at  any  spot,  the  blood 
sets  thither  and  reddens  it.     This  extra  supply,  both 
by  its  presence  and  the  friction  of  the  swiftly-moving 
currents,  produces  heat.     The  pressure  of  the  dis- 
tended vessels  upon  the  nerves  frets  them,  and  pro- 
duces pain.     The  swelling  stretches  the  walls  of  the 
blood-vessels,  and  the  serum  or  lymph  oozes  through. 
The  four  characteristics  of  an  inflammation  are  red- 
ness, heat,  pain,  and  swelling. 

3.  BLEEDING,   if  from  an  artery,   will  be  of  red 
blood,  and  will  come  in  jets ;   if  from  the  veins,  it 
will  be  of  dark  blood,   and  will  flow  in  a  steady 
stream.     If  only  a  small  vessel  be  severed,  it  may  be 
checked  by  a  piece  of  cloth  held  or  bound  firmly 

pleasurable,  sometimes  painful— takes  possession  of  the  mind ;  thereupon  a  hot  flush 
is  felt,  the  skin  grows  red,  and  according  to  the  intensity  of  the  emotion  these  change? 
are  confined  to  the  cheeks  only,  or  extend  to  the  '  roots  of  the  hair,'  or  '  all  over.'  What 
is  the  cause  of  these  changes  ?  The  blood  is  a  red  and  a  hot  fluid  ;  the  skin  reddens  and 
grows  hot,  because  its  vessels  contain  an  increased  quantity  of  this  red  and  hot  fluid : 
and  its  vessels  contain  more,  because  the  small  arteries  suddenly  dilate,  the  natural 
moderate  contraction  of  their  muscles  being  superseded  by  a  state  of  relaxation.  In 
other  words,  the  action  of  the  nerves  which  cause  this  muscular  contraction  is  sus- 
pended. On  the  other  hand,  in  many  people,  extreme  terror  causes  the  skin  to  grow 
cold,  and  the  face  to  appear  pale  and  pinched.  Under  these  circumstances,  in  fact, 
the  supply  of  blood  to  the  skin  is  greatly  diminished,  in  consequence  of  an  excessive 
stimulation  of  the  nerves  of  the  small  arteries,  which  causes  them  to  contract  and  so 
to  cut  off  the  supply  of  blood  more  or  less  completely.  That  this  is  the  real  state  of 
the  case  may  be  proved  experimentally  upon  rabbits.  These  animals,  it  is  true,  do 
not  blush  naturally,  but  they  may  be  made  to  blush  artificially.  If,  in  a  rabbit,  the 
sympathetic  nerve  which  sends  branches  to  the  vessels  of  the  head  is  cut,  the  ear  of 
the  rabbit,  which  is  covered  by  so  delicate  an  integument  that  the  changes  in  its 
vessels  can  be  readily  perceived,  at  once  blushes.  That  is  to  say,  the  vessels  dilate, 
fill  with  blood,  and  the  ear  becomes  red  and  hot.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  when 
the  sympathetic  nerve  is  cut,  the  nervous  stimulus  which  is  ordinarily  sent  along  its 
branches  is  interrupted,  and  the  muscles  of  the  small  vessels,  which  were  slightly 
contracted,  become  altogether  relaxed.  And  now  it  is  quite  possible  to  produce 
pallor  and  cold  in  the  rabbits  car.  To  do  this  it  is  only  necessary  to  irritate  the  cut 
end  of  the  sympathetic  nerve  which  remains  connected  with  the  vessels.  The  nerve 
then  becomes  excited,  so  that  the  muscular  fibers  of  the  vessels  are  thrown  into  a 
violent  state  of  contraction,  which  diminishes  their  caliber  so  much  that  the  blood 
can  hardly  make  its  way  through  them.  Consequently,  the  ear  becomes  pale  and 
cold.."—Huccley's  Lessons  in  Physiology,  page  58. 


126  THE  CIRCULATION. 

upon  the  wound.  If  a  large  trunk  be  cut,  especially 
in  a  limb,  make  a  knot  in  a  handkerchief  and  tie  it 
loosely  about  the  limb ;  then,  placing  the  knot  on 
the  wound,  with  a  short  stick  twist  the  handker- 
chief tightly  enough  to  stop  the  flow.  If  you  have  a 
piece  of  cloth  to  use  as  a  pad,  the  knot  will  be  un- 
necessary. If  it  be  an  artery  that  is  cut,  the  pressure 
should  be  applied  between  the  wound  and  the  heart ; 
if  a  vein,  beyond  the  wound.  If  you  are  alone,  and 
are  severely  wounded,  or  in  an  emergency,  like  a 
railroad  accident,  use  the  remedy  which  has  saved 
many  a  life  upon  the  battle-field — bind  or  hold  a 
handful  of  dry  earth  upon  the  wound,  elevate  the 
part,  and  await  surgical  assistance. 

4.  SCROFULA  is  generally  inherited.   It  is  a  disease 
affecting   the    lymphatic    glands,   most    commonly 
those  of  the  neck,  forming  "  kernels,7'  as  they  are 
called.     It  is,  however,  liable  to  attack  any  organ, 
and  frequently  terminates  in  consumption.     Persons 
inheriting  this  disease  can  hope  to  ward  off  its  in- 
sidious approaches  only  by  the  utmost  care  in  diet 
and  exercise  ;  by  the  use  of  pure  air  and  warm  cloth- 
ing, and  by  avoiding  late  hours  and  undue  stimulus 
of  all  kinds.     Probably  the  most  fatal  and  common 
excitants  of  the  latent  seeds  of  scrofula  are  insuffi- 
cient or  improper  food,  and  want  of  ventilation. 

5.  A  COLD. — We  put  on  a  thinner  dress  than  usual, 
or,  when  heated,  sit  in  a  cool  place.     The  skin  is 
chilled,  and  the  perspiration  checked.      The  blood, 
no  longer  cleansed  and  reduced  in  volume  by  the 
drainage  through  the  pores,  sets  to  the  lungs  for 
purification.      That  organ  is   oppressed,   breathing 
becomes  difficult,  and  the  extra  mucus  secreted  by 


DISEASES.   ETC.  127 

the  irritated  surface  of  the  membrane  is  thrown  off 
by  coughing.  The  mucous  membrane  of  the  nasal 
chamber  sympathizes  with  the  difficulty,  and  we 
have  "  a  cold  in  the  head,"  or  a  catarrh.  In 
general,  the  excess  of  blood  seeks  the  weakest  point, 
and  develops  there  any  latent  disease.*  Where  one 
person  has  been  killed  in  battle,  thousands  have 
died  of  colds. 

To  restore  the  equipoise  must  be  the  object  of  all 
treatment.  We  put  the  feet  in  hot  water  and  they 
soon  become  red  and  gorged  with  the  blood  which  is 
thus  called  from  the  congested  organs.  Hot  foot- 
baths have  saved  multitudes  of  lives.  It  is  well  in 
case  of  a  sudden  cold  to  go  immediately  to  bed,  and 
with  hot  drinks  and  extra  clothing  open  the  pores, 
and  induce  free  perspiration.  This  calls  the  blood  to 
the  surface,  and,  by  equalizing  and  diminishing  the 
volume  of  the  circulation,  affords  relief,  f 

The  rule  for  the  prevention  and  cure  of  a  cold  is  to 
Jceep  the  blood  upon  the  surface. 

6.  CATARRH  commonly  manifests  itself  by  the 
symptoms  known  as  those  of  a  "cold  in  the  head," 
and  is  produced  by  the  same  causes.  It  is  an  in- 
flammation of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
nasal  and  bronchial  passages.  One  going  out  from 


*  A  party  go  out  for  a  walk  and  are  caught  in  a  rain,  or,  coming  home  heated  from 
some  close  assembly,  throw  off  their  coats  to  enjoy  the  deliciously-cool  breeze.  The 
next  day,  one  has  a  fever,  another  a  slight  headache,  another  pleurisy,  another 
pneumonia,  another  rheumatism,  while  some  escape  without  any  ill-feeling  what- 
ever. The  last  had  vital  force  sufficient  to  withstand  the  disturbance,  but  in  the 
others  there  were  weak  points,  and  to  these  the  excess  of  blood  has  gone,  producing 
congestion. 

+  Severe  colds  may  often  be  relieved  in  their  first  stages  by  using  lemons  freely 
during  the  day,  and  taking  at  night  fifteen  or  twenty  grains  of  sodium  bromide. 
Great  care,  however,  should  be  observed  in  employing  the  latter  remedy,  except 
tmder  the  ndvice  of  a  physician. 


128 


THE  CIRCULATION. 


the  hot  dry  air  of  a  furnace-heated  room  into  the  cold 
damp  atmosphere  of  our  climate  can  hardly  avoid 
irritating  and  inflaming  this  tender  membrane.  If 
our  rooms  were  heated  less  intensely,  and  ventilated 
more  thoroughly,  so  that  we  had  not  the  present 
hot-house  sensitiveness  to  cold  air,  this  disease 
would  be  far  less  universal,  and  perhaps  would  dis- 
appear entirely,* 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS  AND   NARCOTICS. 


1.  ALCOHOL.t 

General  Effect  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Circulation. 
—  During  the  experiment  described  on  page  116, 
the  influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  blood  may  be 
beautifully  tested.  Place  on  the  web  of  the  frog's 

*  Dr.  Gray  gives  the  following  table  based  upon  measurement  of  rooms  occupied 
by  letter-press  printers : 


Number  per 
cent. 
Spitting  Blood. 

Subject  to 
Catarrh. 

104  men  having 
breathe 

less  than 

500  cubic  feet  of  air  to 

12  50 

12  50 

115  men  having 
breathe  

from  500  t 

o  600  cubic  feet  of  air  to 

4.35 

3  53 

101  men  having 
breathe 

more  than 

GOO  cubic  feet  of  air  to 

3  96 

1  98 

t  How  Alcohol  is  formed — When  any  substance  containing  sugar,  as  fruit-juice, 
is  caused  to  ferment,  the  elements  of  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  oxygen,  of  which  the 
pu:?ar  is  composed,  rearrange  themselves  so  as  to  form  carbonic  acid,  alcohol,  and 
certain  volatile  oils,  and  ethers.  The  carbonic  acid  partly  evaporates,  and  p*tly 
remains  to  give  life  and  piquancy  to  the  liquor  ;  the  alcohol  is  the  exciting  or 
intoxicating  principle;  while  the  oils  and  ethers  impart  the  peculiar  flavor  and 
aroma.  Thus  wine  is  fermented  grape-juice  and  cider  is  fermented  apple-juice,  each 
having  its  distinctive  fragrance.  For  a  full  account  of  the  subject  of  Fermentation, 
read  Steele^a  New  Chemistry,  page  192. 

Manufacture  of  Beer. — The  barley  used  for  making  beer  is  first  malted,  i.  o. 
sprouted,  to  turn  a  part  of  its  starch  into  sugar.  When  this  process  has  gone  far 


ALCOHOL.  129 

foot  a  drop  of  dilute  spirit.  The  blood-vessels  im- 
mediately expand — an  effect  known  as  ''Vascular 
enlargement."  Channels  before  unseen  open,  and 
the  blood-disks  fly  along  at  a  brisker  rate.  Next, 
touch  the  membrane  with  a  drop  of  pure  spirit. 
The  blood  channels  quickly  contract ;  the  cells 
slacken  their  speed ;  and,  finally,  all  motion  ceases. 
The  flesh  shrivels  up  and  dies.  The  circulation  thus 
stopped  is  stopped  forever.  The  part  affected  will  in 
time  slough  off.  Alcohol  has  killed  it. 

enough,  it  is  checked  by  heating  the  grain  in  a  kiln  until  the  germ  is  destroyed. 
The  malt  is  then  crushed,  steeped,  and  fermented  with  hops  and  yeast.  The  sugar 
gradually  disappears,  alcohol  is  formed,  and  carbonic  acid  escapes  into  the  air.  The 
beer  is  then  put  into  casks,  where  it  undergoes  a  second,  slower  fermentation,  the 
flavor  ripens,  and  the  carbonic  acid  gathers  ;  when  the  liquor  is  drawn,  this  gas  bub- 
bles to  the  surface,  giving  to  the  beer  its  sparkling,  foamy  look. 

Spirits. — Alcohol  is  so  volatile  that,  by  the  application  of  heat,  it  can  be  driven  off 
as  a  vapor  from  the  fermented  liquid  in  which  it  has  been  produced.  Steam  and 
various  fragrant  substances  will  pass  over  with  it,  and,  if  they  are  collected  and 
condensed  in  a  cool  receiverva  new  and  stronger  liquor  will  be  formed,  having  a  dis- 
tinctive odor. 

In  this  way,  the  alcohol  of  commerce  is  distilled  from  whisky  ;  brandy,  from  wine ; 
rum,  from  fermented  molasses  ;  whiskey,  from  fermented  corn,  barley  or  potatoes; 
and  gin,  from  fermented  barley  and  rye,  afterward  distilled  with  juniper  berries.  In 
all  liquors,  the  base  is  alcohol.  It  comprises  from  8  to  8  per  cent,  of  ale  and  porter, 
7  to  17  per  cent,  of  wine,  and  40  to  50  per  cent,  of  brandy  and  whisky.  They  may 
thereiore  be  considered  as  alcohol  more  and  less  diluted  with  water  and  flavored 
with  various  aromatics.  The  taste,  agreeability.  etc.,  of  different  liquors— as  brandy, 
gin,  beer,  cider,  etc.— may  vary  greatly,  but  they  all  produce  certain  physiological 
effects  due  to  their  common  ingredient — alcohol. 

Properties  of  Alcohol.— Pour  a  little  alcohol  into  a  saucer  and  apply  an  ignited 
match,  The  liquid  will  suddenly  take  fire,  burning  with  intense  heat,  but  feeble 
light.  In  this  process,  alcohol  takes  up  oxygen  from  the  air,  forming  carbonic  acid 
ga«,  and  water.— Hold  a  red-hot  coil  of  platinum  wire  in  a  goblet  containing  a  few 
drops  of  alcohol,  and  a  peculiar  odor  will  be  noticed.  It  denotes  the  formation  of 
ald-hyde — a  substance  produced  in  the  slow  oxidation  of  alcohol.  Still  further  oxi- 
dized, the  alcohol  would  be  changed  into  acetic  acid— the  sour  principle  of  vinegar. 

One  of  the  most  noticeable  properties  of  alcohol  is  its  affinity  for  water.  When 
strong  alcohol  is  exposed  to  the  air,  it  absorbs  moisture  and  becomes  diluted  ;  at  the 
same  time,  the  spirit  itself  evaporates.  The  commercial  or  proof -spirit  is  about 
one -half  water;  the  strongest  holds  ten  per  cent.;  and  to  obtain  absolute  or 
waterless  alcohol,  requires  careful  distillation  in  connection  with  some  substance, 
as  lime,  that  has  a  still  greater  affinity  for  water,  and  so  can  despoil  the  alcohol.— 
Put  the  white  of  an  egg— nearly  pure  albumen— into  a  cup,  and  pour  upon  it  some 
alcohol,  or  even  strong  brandy  ;  the  fluid  albumen  will  coagulate,  becoming  hard 
and  solid.  In  this  connection,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  albumen  is  contained  in 
our  food,  while  the  brain  is  largely  an  albuminous  substance. 


130  THE  CIRCULATION. 

The  influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  human  system 
is  similar.  Alcohol  is  a  poison.  A  quart  drunk  at 
a  time,  would  kill  a  man  like  a  bullet.  Diluted,  as 
in  wine  or  whiskey,  it  dilates  the  blood-vessels, 
quickens  the  circulation,  hastens  the  heart-throbs, 
and  accelerates  the  respiration. 

The  Effect  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Heart  —  What 
means  this  rapid  flow  of  the  blood  ?  It  shows 
that  the  heart  is  overworking.  The  nerves  that  lead 
to  the  minute  capillaries  and  regulate  the  passage 
of  the  vital  current  through  the  extreme  parts  of  the 
body,  are  paralyzed  by  this  active  narcotic.  The 
tiny  blood-vessels  at  once  expand.  This  "  Vascular 
enlargement "  removes  the  resistance  to  the  passage 
of  the  blood,  and  hence  to  the  beat  of  the  heart,  and 
the  heart  flies  like  the  main  spring  of  a  clock  when 
the  wheels  are  taken  out.* 

Careful  experiments  show  that  two  ounces  of 
alcohol — an  amount  contained  in  the  daily  potations 
of  a  very  moderate  ale  or  whisky  drinker — increase 
the  heart-beats  6000  in  twenty-four  hours  ; — a  degree 
of  work  represented  by  that  of  lifting  up  a  weight 
of  seven  tons  to  a  height  of  one  foot.  Reducing  this 
sum  to  ounces  and  dividing,  we  find  that  the  heart  is 

*  In  the  text,  the  researches  of  Dr.  B  W.  Richardson  have  been  accepted  as 
authoritative  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  His  experiments  prove  that  this  appar- 
ently stimulating  action  of  alcohol  upon  the  heart  is  due  to  the  paralysis  of  the  nerves 
that  control  the  capillaries  (Note,  p.  193),  which  ordinarily  check  the  flow  of  the 
blood  (p.  116).  The  heart,  like  other  muscle?  under  the  influence  of  alcohol,  really 
loses  power,  and  contracts  less  vigorously  (p.  169).  Dr.  Palmer,  of  the  University 
of  Michigan,  also  claims  that  alcohol,  in  fact,  diminishes  the  strength  of  the  henrt. 
Prof.  Martin,  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  from  a  eeries  of  experiments  upon  the 
isolated  hearts  of  dogs,  concludes  that  blood  containing  one-fourth  per  cent,  of 
alcohol  almost  invariably  diminishes  within  a  minute  the  work  done  by  the  heart ; 
blood  containing  one-half  per  cent,  always  diminishes  it,  and  may  reduce  the 
anjotfnt  pumped  out  by  the  left  ventricle  so  that  it  is  not  sufficient  t 
coronary  arteries. 


ALCOHOL.  131 

driven  to  do  extra  work  equivalent  to  lifting  seven 
ounces  one  foot  high  1493  times  each  hour !  No 
wonder  that  the  drinker  feels  a  reaction,  a  physical 
languor,  after  the  earliest  effects  of  his  indulgence 
have  passed  away.  The  heart  flags,  the  brain  and 
the  muscles  feel  exhausted,  and  rest  and  sleep  are 
imperatively  demanded.  During  this  time  of  excite- 
ment, the  machinery  of  life  has  really  been  "  run- 
ning down."  "It  is  hard  work,"  says  Kichardson, 
"  to  fight  against  alcohol;  harder  than  rowing,  walk- 
ing, wrestling,  coal-heaving,  or  the  tread-mill  itself." 

All  this  is  only  the  first  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the 
heart.  Long-continued  use  of  this  disturbing  agent 
causes  a  "Degeneration  of  the  muscular  fiber,"*  so 
that  the  heart  loses  its  old  power  to  drive  the  blood, 
and,  after  a  time,  fails  to  respond  even  to  the  spur 
of  the  excitant  that  has  urged  it  to  ruin. 

Influence  upon  the  Membranes. — The  flush  of  the 
face  and  the  blood-shot  eye,  that  are  such  noticeable 
effects  of  even  a  small  quantity  of  liquor,  indicate 
the  condition  of  all  the  internal  organs.  The  deli- 
cate linings  of  the  stomach,  heart,  brain,  liver,  and 
lungs,  are  reddened,  and  every  tiny  vein  is  inflamed, 
like  the  blushing  nose  itself.  If  the  use  of  liquor  is 

*  This  "  Degeneration  "  of  the  various  tissues  of  the  body,  we  shall  find,  as  we 
proceed,  is  one  of  the  most  marked  effects  of  alcoholized  blood.  The  change  con- 
sists in  an  excess  of  liquid,  or,  more  commonly,  in  a  deposit  of  fat.  This  fatty 
matter  is  not  an  increase  of  the  organ,  but  it  takes  the  place  of  a  part  of  its  fiber, 
thus  weakening  the  structure,  and  reducing  the  power  of  the  tissue  to  perform 
its  function.  Almost  everywhere  in  the  body  we  thus  find  cells— muscle-cells, 
liver-cells,  nerve-cells,  as  the  case  may  be — changing,  one  by  one,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  this  potent  disorganizer,  into  tinhealthy  fat-cells.  "Alcohol  has  well  been 
termed,"  says  the  London  Lancet,  "the  'Genius  of  Degeneration.'  " 

The  cause  of  this  degeneration  can  be  easily  explained.  The  increased  activity 
of  the  circulation  compels  a  correspondingly-increased  activity  of  the  cell-changes  : 
but  the  essential  condition  of  healthful  change — the  presence  of  additional  oxygen — 
is  wanting  (see  p.  133),  and  the  operation  ie  imperfectly  performed. — (Brodie.) 


132  THE   CIRCULATION. 

habitual,  this  "  Vascular  enlargement,"  that  at  first 
slowly  passed  away  after  each  indulgence,  becomes 
permanent,  and  now  the  discolored,  blotched  skin 
reveals  the  state  of  the  entire  mucous  membrane. 

We  learned  on  page  55  what  a  peculiar  office  the 
membrane  fills  in  nourishing  the  organs  it  enwraps. 
Anything  that  disturbs  its  delicate  structure  must 
mar  its  efficiency.  Alcohol  has  a  wonderful  affinity 
for  water.  To  satisfy  this  greed,  it  will  absorb  moist- 
ure from  the  tissues  with  which  it  comes  in  con- 
tact, as  well  as  from  their  lubricating  juices.  The 
enlargement  of  the  blood-vessels  and  their  perma- 
nent congestion  must  interfere  with  the  filtering 
action  of  the  membrane.  In  time,  all  the  membranes 
become  dry,  thickened,  and  hardened  ;  they  then 
shrink  upon  the  sensitive  nerve,  or  stiffen  the  joint, 
or  enfeeble  the  muscle.  The  function  of  these  mem- 
branes being  deranged,  they  will  not  furnish  the 
organs  with  perfected  material,  and  the  clogged 
pores  will  no  longer  filter  their  natural  fluids. 
Every  organ  in  the  body  will  feel  this  change. 

Effect  upon  the  Blood.* — From  the  stomach,  alco- 
hol passes  directly  into  the  circulation,  and  so,  in  a 
few  minutes,  is  swept  through  the  entire  system. 
If  it  be  present  in  sufficient  amount  and  strength, 
its  eager  desire  for  water  will  lead  it  to  absorb 
moisture  from  the  red  corpuscles,  causing  them 
to  shrink,  change  their  form,  harden,  and  lose 
some  of  their  ability  to  carry  oxygen  ;  it  may  even 

*  Dr.  Q.  B.  Ilarriman  of  Boston  states,  as  the  result  of  his  observations,  that 
alcohol  acts  upon  the  oxygen -carrier,  the  coloring  matter  of  the  red  corpuscles, 
causing  it  to  settle  in  one  part  of  the  globule,  or  even  to  leave  the  corpuscle,  and 
deposit  itself  in  other  elements  of  the  blood.  Thus  the  red  corpuscle  may  become 
colorless,  distorted,  shmnken,  and  even  entirely  broken  up. 


ALCOHOL.  133 

make  them  adhere  in  masses,  and  so  hinder  their 
passage  through  the  tiny  capillaries. — Richardson. 

With  most  persons  who  indulge  freely  in  alcoholic 
drinks,  the  blood  is  thin,  the  avidity  of  alcohol  for 
water  causing  a  burning  thirst  so  familiar  to  all 
drinkers,  and  hence  the  use  of  enormous  quantities 
of  water,  oftener  of  beer,  which  unnaturally  dilutes 
the  blood.  The  blood  then  easily  flows  from  a 
wound,  and,  not  coagulating,  renders  an  accident  or 
surgical  operation  very  dangerous. 

When  the  blood  tends,  as  in  the  case  of  an  ex- 
cessive use  of  spirits,  to  coagulate  in  the  capillaries, 
there  is  a  liability  of  an  obstruction  to  the  flow 
of  the  vital  current  through  the  heart,*  liver,  lungs, 
etc.,  that  may  cause  disease,  and  in  the  brain  may 
lay  the  foundation  of  paralysis,  or,  in  extreme  cases, 
of  apoplexy. 

Wherever  the  alcoholized  blood  goes  through  the 
body,  it  bathes  the  delicate  cells  with  an  irritating, 
narcotic  poison,  instead  of  a  bland,  nutritious  sub- 
stance. 

Effect  upon  the  Lungs.  —  Here  we  can  see  how 
certainly  the  presence  of  alcohol  interferes  with  the 
red  corpuscles  in  their  task  of  carrying  oxygen. 
"  Even  so  small  a  quantity  as  one  part  of  alcohol  to 
500  of  the  blood  will  materially  check  the  absorption 
of  oxygen  in  the  lungs." 

The  cells,  unable  to  take  up  oxygen,  retain  their 
carbonic  acid  gas,  and  so  return  from  the  lungs,  car- 
rying back,  to  poison  the  system,  the  refuse  matter 

*  Persons  have  drunk  a  large  quantity  of  liquor  for  a  wager,  and,  as  the  result  of  their 
folly,  "  died  upon  the  spot."  The  whole  of  the  blood  in  the  heart  being  turned  into 
a  clot,  the  circulation  was  instantly  stopped,  and  death  was  instantaneous. 


134  THE   CIRCULATION. 

the  body  has  sought  to  throw  off.    Thus  the  lungs 
no  longer  furnish  properly  oxygenized  blood. 

The  rapid  stroke  of  the  heart,  already  spoken  of, 
is  followed  by  a  corresponding  quickening  of  the 
respiration.  The  flush  of  the  cheek  is  repeated  in 
the  reddened  mucous  membrane  lining  the  lungs. 

When  this  "  Vascular  enlargement  "  becomes  per- 
manent, and  the  highly-albuminous  membrane  of  the 
air-cells  is  hardened  and  thickened  as  well  as  con- 
gested, the  Osmose  of  the  gases  to  and  fro  through 
its  pores  can  no  longer  be  prompt  and  free  as  before. 
Even  when  the  effect  passes  off  in  a  few  days  after 
the  occasional  indulgence,  there  has  been,  during 
that  time,  a  diminished  supply  of  the  life-giving 
oxygen  furnished  to  the  system  ;  weakness  follows, 
and,  in  the  case  of  hard  drinkers,  there  is  a  marked 
liability  to  epidemics.* 

Physicians  tell  us,  also,  that  there  is  a  peculiar 
form  of  consumption  known  as  Alcoholic  Phthisis 
caused  by  long  -  continued  and  excessive  use  of 
liquor.  It  generally  attacks  those  whose  splendid 
physique  has  enabled  them  to  "  drink  deep  "  with 
apparent  impunity.  This  type  of  consumption  ap- 
pears late  in  life  and  is  considered  incurable.  Severe 
cases  of  pneumonia  are  also  generally  fatal  with 
inebriates,  f 

*  >%  There  h>  no  doubt  that  alcohol  alters  and  impairs  tissues  so  that  they  are  more 
prone  to  disease."— (Ur.  O.  K.  Sabine.)  A  volume  of  statistics  could  be  filled  with 
quotations  like  the  following :  "  Mr.  Huber,  who  paw  in  one  town  in  Russia  two 
thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty  persons  perish  with  the  cholera  in  twenty  days, 
said  :  '  It  is  a  most  remarkable  circumstance  that  persons  given  to  drink  have  been 
swept  away  like  flies.  In  Tiflis,  with  twenty  thousand  inhabitants,  every  drunkard 
has  fallen,— all  are  dead,  not  one  remaining.1 " 

t  The  Influence  of  Alcohol  is  continued  in  the  chapter  on  Digestion. 


PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS.  135 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  does  a  dry,  cold  atmosphere  favorably  affect  catarrh  ? 

2.  Why  should  we  put  on  extra   covering  when   we  lie  down  to 
sleep  ? 

3.  Is  it  well  to  throw  off  our  coats  or  shawls  when  we  come  in 
heated  from  a  long  walk  ? 

4.  Why  are  close-fitting  collars  or  neck-ties  injurious? 

5.  Which  side  of  the  heart  is  the  more  liable  to  inflammation  ? 

6.  What  gives  the  toper  his  red  nose  ? 

7.  Why  does  not  the  arm  die  when  the  surgeon  ties  the  principal 
artery  leading  to  it? 

8.  When  a  fowl  is  angry,  why  does  its  comb  redden  ? 

9.  Why  does  a  fat  man  endure  cold  better  than  a  led,n  one  ? 

10.  Why  does  one  become  thin  during  a  long  sickness? 

11.  What  would  you  do  if  you  should  come  home  "  wet  to  the  skin  "  ? 

12.  When  the  cold  air  strikes  the  face,  why  does  it  first  blanch  and 
then  flush  ? 

13.  What  must  be  the  effect  of  tight  lacing  upon  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  ? 

14.  Do  you  know  the  position  of  the  large  arteries  in  the  limbs,  so 
that  in  case  of  accident  you  could  stop  the  flow  of  blood  ? 

15.  When  a  person  is  said  to  be  good-hearted,  is  it  a  physical  truth? 

16.  Why  does  a  hot  foofc-bath  relieve  the  headache? 

17.  Why  does  the  body  of  a  drowned  or  strangled  person  turn  blue  ? 

18.  What  are  the  little  "kernels  "  in  the  arm-pits? 

19.  When  we  are  excessively  warm,  would  the  thermometer  show 
any  rise  of  temperature  in  the  body  ? 

20.  What  forces  besides  that  of  the  heart  aid  in  propelling  the  blood  ? 

21.  Why  can  the  pulse  be  best  felt  in  the  wrist? 

22.  Why  are  starving  people  exceedingly  sensitive  to  any  jar  ? 

23.  Why  will  friction,  an  application  of  horse-radish  leaves,  or  a 
blister,  relieve  internal  congestion  ? 

24.  Why  are  students  very  liable  to  cold  feet  ? 

25.  Is  the  proverb  that  "blood  is  thicker  than  water"  literally  true? 

26.  What  is  the  effect  upon  the  circulation  of  "  holding  the  breath"? 

27.  Which  side  of  the  heart  is  the  stronger  ? 


136  PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS. 

28  How  is  the  heart  itself  nourished  ?* 

29.  Does  any  venous  blood  reach  the  heart  without  coming  through 
the  venae  cavae  ? 

30.  What  would  you  do,  in  the  absence  of  a  surgeon,  in  the  case  of 
a  severe  wound  ?     See  Appendix. 

31.  What  would  you  do  in  the  case  of  a  fever  ?    See  Appendix. 

32.  What  is  the  most  injurious  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  blood  ? 

33.  Are  our  bodies  the  same  from  day  to  day  ? 

34.  Show  how  life  comes  by  death. 

35.  Is  not  the  truth  just  stated  as  applicable  to  moral  and  intellectual, 
as  to  physical  life  ? 

36.  What  vein  begins  and  ends  with  capillaries?    Ans.  The  portal 
vein  commences  with  capillaries  in  the  digestive  organs,  and  ends  with 
the  same  kind  of  vessels  in  the  liver.     (See  p.  153.) 

37.  By  what  process  is  alcohol  always  formed?    Does  it  exist  in 
nature  ? 

38.  What  percentage  of  alcohol  is  contained  in  the  different  kinds  of 
liquor  ? 

39.  Does  cider  possess  the  same  intoxicating  principle  as  brandy  1 

40.  Describe  the  general  properties  of  alcohol. 

41.  Show  that  alcohol  is  a  narcotic  poison. 

42.  If  alcohol  is  not  a  stimulant,  how  does  it  cause  the  heart  to  over- 
work. 

43.  Why  is  the  skin  of  a  drunkard  always  red  and  blotched  ? 

44.  What  danger  is  there  in  using  alcoholic  drinks  occasionally  ? 

45.  What  is  meant  by  a  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart? 

46.  What  keeps  the  blood  in  circulation  between  the  beats  of  the 
heart  ? 

47.  What  is  the  office  of  the  capillaries?    (See  note,  p.  254.) 
43.  Does  alcohol  interfere  with  this  function  ? 

49.  How  does  alcohol  interfere  with  the  regular  office  of  the  mem- 
branes? 

50.  How  does  it  check  the  process  of  oxidation  ? 

*  The  coronary  artery,  springing  from  the  aorta  just  after  its  origin,  carries 
blood  to  the  muscular  walls  of  the  heart ;  the  venous  blood  comes  back  through  the 
coronary  veins,  and  empties  directly  into  the  right  auricle. 


•vi. 

DIGESTION 

AND 

FOOD. 


A  man  puts  some  ashes  in  a  hill  of  corn  and  thereby  doubles  its 
yield.  Then  he  says,  "  My  ashes  have  I  turned  into  corn."  Weak 
from  his  labor,  he  eats  of  his  corn,  and  new  life  comes  to  him.  Again, 
he  says,  "  /  have  changed  my  corn  into  a  man. "  This  also  he  feels 
to  be  the  truth. 

It  is  the  problem  of  the  body,  remember,  that  we  are  discussing.  A 
man  is  more  than  the  body ;  to  confound  the  body  and  the  man  is 
wtrse  than  confounding  the  body  and  the  clothing. — JOHN  DARBY. 


BLACKBOARD      ANALYSIS. 


f  1.  WHY  WE  NEED  FOOD. 

2.  What  FOOD  DOES. 

f  1.  Nitrogenous. 

3.  KINDS  OF  FOOD \  2.  Carbonaceous 

1.3.  Minerals. 

4.  ONE  KIND  is  INSUFFICIENT. 

5.  OBJECT  OF  DIGESTION. 


f     —  General  Description. 
1.  Mastication  and  In-  {  a.The  Saliva. 

salivation  

i  b.Processof  Swallowing 

(  a.  The  Stomach. 

6.  PROCESS  OF  DIGESTION  - 

2.  Gastric  Digestion.  .  • 

<  b.  The  Gastric  Juice. 
{  c.  The  Chyme. 
f     —  Description. 

S.IntestinalDigestion.  j  J;  ^  panc.-eatic  Juice. 

I  c.  The  Small  Intestine. 

B 

...                             t  a.  By  the  Veins. 
I  4-  Absorption  }  b.  By  the  Lactcals. 

P 

7.  COMPLEXITY  OF  THE  PROCESS  OF  DIGESTION. 

£ 

'  1.  Length  of  Time  required. 

<<  i 

a  I5eer. 

b.  Mutton. 

te 

c-  Lamb. 

o 

2.  Value    of  different 

d.  Pork. 

kinds  of  Food.     ' 

e.  Fish. 

f-i 

f.  Milk. 

c/} 

s.  Cheese. 

W 
0 

5 

8  HYGIENE                 .  . 

-  ,  .  '       ™                        -    •  ESg*S  ctc- 
(  a.  Coffee. 
3.  The  Stimulants.       4  b  Tea. 
(  c.  Chocolate. 

4.  Cooking  of  Food. 

5.  Rapid  Eating. 
6.  Quantity  and  Quality  of  Food. 
7.  When  Food  should  be  taken. 

8.  How 

U           14 

9.  Need  of  a  Variety. 

9.  THE  WONDERS  OF  DIGESTION. 

10  DISEASES                     \  *'  D78P«Psia- 

(I.  Is  Alcohol  a  Food? 
I  2.  Effect  upon  the  Digestion. 
„:     8.         "         "         Liver. 
11.  ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS  2    4.  Kidneys. 

5.  Does  Alcohol  impart  lu-nt  ? 

6.  **  "  "     strength? 

7.  The  Effect  upon  the  Waste  of  the  Body. 

8.  Alcohol  creates  a  progressive  appetite  for  it- 

self. 
,9.  Law  of  Heredity. 


AND  NARCOTICS. 


DIGESTION    AND    FOOD. 


"TTTHY  we  need  Food.— We  have  learned  that 
VV  our  bodies  are  constantly  giving  off  waste 
matter— the  products  of  the  fire,  or  oxidation,  as  the 
chemist  terms  the  change  going  on  within  us  (note, 
p.  105).  A  man  without  food  will  starve  to  death  in 
a  few  days,  i.  e.,  the  oxygen  will  have  consumed 
all  the  available  flesh  of  his  body.*  To  replace  the 
daily  outgo,  we  need  about  two  and  a  quarter  pounds 
of  food,  and  three  pints  of  drink,  f 

Including  the  eight  hundred  pounds  of  oxygen 
taken  from  the  air,  a  man  uses  in  a  year  about  a  ton 

*  The  stories  current  in  the  newspapers  of  persons  who  live  for  years  without 
food,  are,  of  course,  untrue.  The  case  of  the  Welsh  Pasting  Girl,  which  excited 
general  interest  throughout  Great  Britain,  and  was  extensively  copied  in  our  own 
press,  is  in  point.  She  had  succeeded  in  deceiving  not  only  the  public  but,  as  some 
claim,  her  own  parents.  At  last  a  strict  watch  was  set  by  day  and  night,  precluding 
the  possibility  of  her  receiving  any  food  except  at  the  hands  of  the  committee,  from 
whom  she  steadily  refused  it.  In  a  few  days  she  died  from  actual  starvation.  The 
youth  of  the  girl,  the  apparent  honesty  of  the  parents,  and  the  tragical  sequel,  make 
it  one  of  the  most  remarkable  cases  of  the  kind  on  record. 

t  Every  cell  in  the  tissues  is  full  of  matter  ready  to  set  free  at  call  its  stored-up 
energy— derived  from  the  meat,  bread,  and  vegetables  we  have  eaten.  This  energy 
will  pass  off  quietly  when  the  organs  are  in  comparative  rest,  but  violently  when  the 
muscles  contract  with  force.  When  we  send  an  order  through  a  nerve  to  any  part  of 
the  body,  a  series  of  tiny  explosions  run  the  entire  length  of  the  nerve,  just  as  fire 
runs  through  a  train  of  gunpowder.  The  muscle  receives  the  stimulus,  and,  con- 
tracting, liberates  its  energy.  The  cells  of  nerve  or  muscle,  whose  contents  have 
thus  exploded,  as  it  were,  are  useless,  and  must  be  carried  off  by  the  blood,  just  aa 
ashes  must  be  swept  from  the  hearth,  and  new  fuel  be  supplied  to  keep  up  a  fire. 


140  DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 

and  a  half  of  material.*  Yet  during  this  entire 
time  his  weight  may  have  been  nearly  uniform.  \ 
Our  bodies  are  but  molds,  in  which  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  matter,  checked  for  a  time  on  its  ceaseless 
round,  receives  a  definite  form.  They  may  be 
likened,  says  Huxley,  to  an  eddy  in  the  river,  which 
retains  its  shape  for  a  while,  yet  every  instant  each 
particle  of  water  is  changing. 

"What  Food  Does. — We  make  no  force  ourselves. 
We  can  only  use  that  which  nature  provides.  J  All 
our  strength  comes  from  the  food  we  eat.  Food  is 
force— that  is,  it  contains  latent  within  it  a  power 
which  it  gives  up  when  it  is  decomposed.  §  Oxygen 
is  the  magic  key  which  unlocks  for  our  use  this  hid- 

*  The  following  is  the  daily  ration  of  a  United  States  soldier.  It  is  said  to  be  the 
most  generous  in  the  world  : — 

Bread  or  flour 22  ounces. 

Fresh  or  salt  beef  (or  pork  or  bacon,  12  oz.)  ....       20       u        • 

Potatoes  (three  times  per  week) 16       li 

Rice ,       .         1.6    " 

Coffee  (or  tea,  0.24  oz.) 1.6    " 

Sugar 2.4     " 

Beans 0.64  gill. 

Vinegar 0.32    " 

Salt    ...       - 0.16    " 

t  If,  however,  he  were  kept  on  the  scale-pan  of  a  sensitive  balance,  he  would  find 
that  his  weight  is  constantly  changing,  increasing  with  each  meal,  and  then  gradu- 
ally decreasing. 

$  We  draw  from  nature  at  once  our  substance,  and  the  force  by  which  we  operate 
upon  her;  being,  so  far,  parts  of  her  great  system,  immersed  in  it  for  a  short  time 
and  to  a  small  extent.  Enfolding  us,  as  it  were,  within  her  arms.  Nature  lends  ua. 
her  forces  to  expend;  we  receive  them,  and  pass  them  on,  giving  them  the  impress 

of  our  will,  and  bending  them  to  our  designs,  for  a  little  while  ;  and  then Yes  ; 

then  it  is  all  one.  The  great  procession  pauses  not,  nor  flags  a  moment,  for  our  fall. 
The  powers  which  Nature  lent  to  us  she  resumes  to  herself,  or  lends,  it  may  be,  to 
another ;  the  use  which  we  have  made  of  them,  or  might  have  made  and  did  not, 
written  in  her  book  for  eveT.—Heaitk  and  its  Conditions 

§  This  force  is  chemical  affinity.  It  binds  together  the  molecules  which  compose 
the  food  we  eat.  When  oxygen  tears  the  molecules  to  pieces  and  makes  them  up 
into  smaller  ones  the  force  is  set  free.  As  we  shall  learn  in  Physicp,  it  can  be  turned 
into  heat,  muscular  motion,  dvctricity,  etc.  The  principle  that  the  different  kinds 
offeree  can  be  changed  hi  to  one  another  without  loss,  is  called  the  Conservation  of 
energy,  and  is  one  of  the  grandest  discoveries  of  modern  science.  (Physics,  pages 
87,  40*  208.) 


KINDS   OF  FOOD   NEEDED.  141 

den  store.*  Putting  food  into  our  bodies  is  like 
placing  a  tense  spring  within  a  watch  ;  every  motion 
of  the  body  is  only  a  new  direction  given  to  this 
food-force,  as  every  movement  of  the  hand  on  the 
dial  is  but  the  manifestation  of  the  power  of  the 
bent  spring  in  the  watch.  We  use  the  pent-up  ener- 
gies of  meat,  bread,  and  vegetables  which  are  placed 
at  our  service,  and  transfer  them  to  a  higher  theater 
of  action,  f 

Kinds  of  Food  Needed.  —  From  what  has  been 
said  it  is  clear  that,  in  order  to  produce  heat  and 
force,  we  need  something  that  will  burn,  i.  e.,  with 
which  oxygen  can  combine.  Experiment  has 
proved  that  to  build  up  every  organ,  and  keep  the 
body  in  the  best  condition,  we  require  three  kinds 
of  food. 

1.  NITROGENOUS  FOOD.  As  nitrogen  is  a  prominent 
constituent  of  the  tissues  of  the  body,  food  which 
contains  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  their  growth 
and  repair.  J  The  most  common  forms  are  whites 
of  eggs — which  are  nearly  pure  albumen ;  casein 
— the  chief  constituent  of  cheese ;  lean  meat ;  and 
gluten  —  the  viscid  substance  which  gives  tenac- 

*  We  have  spoken  of  the  mystery  that  envelops  the  process  of  the  conversion 
of  food-force  into  muscular-force  (note,  p.  105).  All  physiologists  agree  that  mus- 
cular power  has  its  source  in  the  chemical  decomposition  of  certain  substances 
whereby  their  potential  energy  is  released.  Probably  some  of  the  food  undergoes 
this  chemical  change  before  it  passes  out  of  the  alimentary  canal ;  possibly  some  is 
broken  up  by  the  oxygen  while  it  is  being  swept  along  by  the  blood;  but, probably 
by  far  the  largest  part  is  converted  into  the  various  tissues  of  the  body,  and  finally 
becomes  a  waste  product  only  after  there  takes  place  in  the  tissue  itself  that  chem- 
ical disorganization  that  sets  free  its  stored-up  power.— Foster's  Physiology. 

t  It  is  a  grand  thought  that  we  can  thus  transform  what  is  common  and  gross 
into  the  refined  and  spiritual ;  that  out  of  waving,  wheat,  wasting  flesh,  running 
water,  and  dead  minerals,  we  can  realize  the  glorious?  possibilities  of  human  life. 

%  Since  this  kind  of  food  closely  resembles  albumen,  it  is  sometimes  called 
Albuminous.  The  term  Proteid  is  also  used. 


142  DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 

ity  to  dough.  Bodies  having  a  great  deal  of  nitro- 
gen readily  .oxidize.  Hence  the  peculiar  character 
of  the  quick-changing,  force-exciting  muscle. 

2.  CARBONACEOUS  FOOD  —  i.  e.,  food  containing 
much  carbon,  consists  of  two  kinds— viz.,  the  sugars, 
and  the  fats. 

(1.)  The  sugars  contain  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in 
the  proportion  to  form  water,  and  about  the  same 
amount  of  carbon.  They  may,  therefore,  be  consid- 
ered as  water,  with  carbon  diffused  through  it.  In 
digestion,  starch  and  gum  are  changed  to  sugar,  and 
so  are  ranked  with  this  class. 

(2)  The  fats  are  like  the  sugars  in  composition,  but 
contain  less  oxygen,  and  not  in  the  proportion  to 
form  water.  They  combine  with  more  oxygen  in 
burning,  and  so  give  off  more  heat. 

The  non-nitrogenous  elements  of  the  food  have, 
however,  other  uses  than  to  develop  heat.*  Fat  is 
essential  to  the  assimilation  of  the  food,  while  sugar 
and  starch  aid  in  digestion  and  may  be  converted 
into  fat.f  Fat  and  carbonaceous  material  both 
enter  into  the  composition  of  the  various  tissues, 
and  when,  by  the  breaking- up  of  the  contractile 
substance  of  the  muscle,  their  latent  energy  is  set 
free,  they  become  the  source  of  muscular  force,  as 
well  as  heat.  While  the  tendency  of  the  albuminous 
food  is  to  excite  chemical  action,  and  hence  the 
release  of  energy,  the  fats  and  carbonaceous  food 

*  The  heat  tbey  produce  in  burning  may  be  turned  into  motion  of  the  muscles, 
according  to  the  principle  of  the  Conservation  of  energy  (p.  140,  note)  ;  while  all  the 
structures  of  the  body  in  their  oxidation  develop  heat. 

t  In  Turkey,  the  ladies  of  the  harem  are  fed  on  honey  and  thick  gruel,  to  make 
flesh,  which  is  considered  to  enhance  their  beauty.— The  negroes  on  the  sugar  plan- 
tations of  the  South  always  grow  fat  during  the  sugar-making  season. 


THREE  KINDS  OF  FOOD.  143 

may  be  laid  up  in  the  body  to  serve  as  a  storehouse 
of  energy  to  supply  future  needs. 

3.  MINEEAL  MATTERS. — Food  should  contain  water, 
and  certain  common  minerals,  such  as  iron,*  sul- 
phur, magnesia,  phosphorus,  salt,  and  potash. 
About  three  pints  of  water  are  needed  daily  to  dis- 
solve the  food  and  carry  it  through  the  circulation, 
to  float  off  waste  matter,  to  lubricate  the  tissues, 
and  by  evaporation  to  cool  the  system.  It  also 
enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  the  body.  A 
man  weighing  154  pounds  contains  100  pounds  of 
water,  about  12  gallons, — enough,  if  rightly  ar- 
ranged, to  drown  him.f 

Iron  goes  to  the  blood  disks ;  lime  combines  with 
phosphoric  and  carbonic  acids  to  give  solidity  to  the 
bones  and  teeth ;  phosphorus  is  essential  to  the 
activity  of  the  brain.  Salt  is  necessary  to  the 
secretion  of  some  of  the  digestive  fluids,  and  also  to 
aid  in  working  off  from  the  system  its  waste  prod- 
ucts. These  various  minerals,  except  iron— some- 
times given  as  a  medicine,  and  salt  —  universally 
used  as  a  condiment,  J  are  contained  in  small,  but 


*  While  the  body  can  build  up  a  solid  from  liquid  materials  on  the  one  hand,  on 
<he  other  it  can  pour  iron  through  its  veins  and  reduce  the  hardest  textures  to  blood. 
-Hinton. 

t  It  is  said  that  Blumenbach  had  a  perfect  mummy  of  an  adult  Teneriffian,  which 
with  the  viscera  weighed  only  seven  and  a  half  pounds. 

t  "Animals  will  travel  long  distances  to  obtain  salt.  Men  will  barter  gold  for 
it;  indeed,  among  the  Gallas  and  on  the  coast  of  Sierra  Leone,  brothers  will  sell 
their  sisters,  husbands  their  wives,  and  parents  their  children  for  salt.  In  the 
district  of  Accra,  on  the  gold  coast  of  Africa,  a  handful  of  salt  is  the  most  valuable 
thing  upon  earth  after  gold,  and  will  purchase  a  slave.  Mungo  Park  tells  us  that 
with  the  Mandingoes  and  Bambaras  the  use  of  salt  is  such  a  luxury  that  to  say  of  a 
man  '  he  flavors  his  food  with  salt,'  it  is  to  imply  that  he  is  rich  ;  and  children  will 
suck  a  piece  of  rock-salt  as  if  it  were  sugar.  No  stronger  mark  of  respect  or  affec- 
tion can  be  shown  in  Muscovy,  than  the  sending  of  salt  from  the  tables  of  the  rich 
to  their  poorer  friends.  In  the  book  of  Leviticus  it  is  expressly  commanded  as  one 


144  DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 

sufficient  quantities  in  meat,  bread,  and  vege- 
tables. 

_  One  Kind  of  Food  is  Insufficient — A  person  fed 
on  starch  alone,  would  die.  It  would  be  a  clear  case 
of  nitrogen  starvation.  On  the  other  hand,  as  nitro- 
genous food  contains  carbon,  the  elements  of  water, 
and  various  mineral  matters,  life  could  be  supported 
on  that  alone.  But  such  a  prodigious  quantity  of 
lean  meat,  for  example,  would  be  required  to  furnish 
the  other  elements,  that  not  only  would  it  be  very 
expensive,  but  it  is  likely  that  after  a  time  the  labor 
of  digestion  would  be  too  onerous,  and  the  system 
would  give  up  the  task  in  despair.  The  need  of  a 
diet  containing  both  nitrogenous  and  carbonaceous 
elements  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  even  in  the  trop- 
ical regions  oil  is  relished  as  a  dressing  upon  salad. 
Instinct  everywhere  suggests  the  blending.  Butter 
is  used  with  bread  ;  rice  is  boiled  with  milk  ;  cheese 
is  eaten  with  maccaroni,  and  beans  are  baked  with 
pork. 

The  Object  of  Digestion. — If  our  food  were  cast 
directly  into  the  blood,  it  could  not  be  used.  For 
example,  although  the  chemist  cannot  see  wherein 
the  albumen  of  the  egg  differs  from  the  albumen  of 
the  blood,  yet  if  it  be  injected  into  the  veins  it  is 

of  the  ordinances  of  Moses,  that  every  ohlation  of  meat  upon  the  altar  shall  b« 
seasoned  with  salt,  without  lacking;  and  hence  it  is  called  the  Salt  of  the  Covenant 
of  God.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  also  used  salt  in  their  sacrificial  cakes  ;  and  it  is 
still  used  in  the  services  of  the  Latin  church— the  ' parva  mica,1  or  pinch  of  ealt, 
being  in  the  ceremony  of  baptism,  put  into  the  child's  mouth,  while  the  priest  says, 
•Receive  the  salt  of  wisdom,  and  may  it  be  a  propitiation  to  thee  for  eternal  life.' 
Everywhere  and  almost  always,  indeed,  it  has  been  regarded  as  emblematical  of 
wisdom,  wit,  and  immortality.  To  taste  a  man's  salt,  was  to  be  bound  by  the  rites 
of  hospitality ;  and  no  oath  was  more  solemn  than  that  which  was  sworn  upon 
bread  and  salt.  To  sprinkle  the  meat  with  salt  was  to  drive  away  the  devil,  and  to 
this  day,  nothing  is  more  unlucky  than  to  spill  the  salt."—  Lethcby,  On  Food. 


MASTICATION  AND   INSALIVATION. 


145 


unavailable  for  the  pur- 
poses required,  and  is 
thrown  out  again.  In  the 
course  of  digestion  the 
food  is  modified  in  various 
ways  whereby  it  is  fitted 
for  the  use  of  the  body. 
We  call  this  process  assim- 
ilation— a  name  for  a  work 
done  solely  by  the  vital 
organs  and  so  mysterious 
in  its  nature  that  the 
wisest  physiologist  gets 
only  glimpses  here  and 
there  of  its  operations. 

The  General  Flan  of  Di- 
gestion.—  Nature  has  pro- 
vided for  this  purpose  an 
entire  laboratory,  furnished 
with  a  chemist's  outfit  of 
knives,  mortars,  baths, 
chemicals,  filters,  etc.  The 
food  is  (1)  chewed,  mixed 
with  the  saliva  in  the  mouth,  and  swallowed  ;  (2)  it  is 
acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice  in  the  stomach ;  (3) 
passed  into  the  intestines,  where  it  receives  the  bile, 
pancreatic  juice,  and  other  liquids  which  completely 
dissolve  it  ;*  (4)  the  nourishing  part  is  absorbed  in 
the  stomach  and  intestines,  and  thence  thrown  into 
the  blood-vessels,  whence  it  is  whirled  through  the 

*  "Digestion,"  says Berzelius,  "is  a  process  of  rinsing."  The  digestive  apparatus 
secretes,  and  again  absorbs  with  the  food  which  it  has  dissolved,  not  less  than  three 
gallons  of  liquid  per  day. — Barnard,  Bidder,  Schmidt,  and  others. 


The  Stomach  and  Intestines.  1, 
stomach  ;  2,  duodenum ;  3,  small  in- 
testine ;  4,  termination  of  the  ileum  ; 
5,  ccKcum  ;  6,  vermiform  appendix ; 
7,  ascending  colon  ;  8,  transverse  co- 
lon ;  9,  descending  colon ;  10,  sigmoid 
flexure  of  the  colon;  11,  rectum^;  12. 
spleen — a  gland  whose  action  is  not 
understood. 


14:6  DIGESTION  AND   FOOD. 

Fig.  k6. 


The  Parotid— one  of  the  salivary  glands. 

body  by  the  torrent  of  the  circulation.  These 
processes  take  place  within  the  alimentary  canal, 
a  narrow,  tortuous  tube  which  commences  at  the 
mouth,  and  is  about  thirty  feet  long.* 

I.  Mastication  and  Insalivation. — 1.  THE  SALIVA. — 
The  food  while  being  cut  and  ground  by  the  teeth  is 
mixed  with  the  saliva.  This  is  a  thin,  colorless, 
frothy,  slightly  alkaline  liquid,  secreted  f  by  the 
mucous  membrane  lining  the  mouth,  and  by  three 
pairs  of  salivary  glands  (parotid,  submaxillary,  and 
sublingual)  opening  into  the  mouth  through  ducts, 
or  tubes.  The  amount  varies,  but  on  the  average  is 
about  three  pounds  per  day,  and  in  health  is  always 

*  The  digestive  apparatus  is  lined  with  mucous  membrane,  that  possesses  func- 
tions similar  to  those  of  the  outer  skin.  It  absorbs  certain  substances  and  rejects 
waste  matter.  On  account  of  this  close  connection  between  the  inner  and  the  outer 
skin,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  in  the  lowest  animals  digestion  is  performed  by 
means  of  the  external  skin.  The  amaeba,  which  is  merely  a  gelatinous  mass,  when 
it  takes  its  food,  extemporizes  a  stomach  for  the  occasion.  It  simply  wraps  itself 
around  the  morsel,  and,  like  an  animated  apple-dumpling  with  the  apple  for  food 
and  the  crust  for  animal,  goes  on  with  the  process  until  the  operation  is  completed, 
when  it  unrolls  itself  again  and  lets  the  indigestible  residue  escape.  The  common 
hydra  of  our  brooks  can  live  when  turned  inside  out,  like  a  glove :  either  side 
serving  for  skin  or  stomach,  as  necessity  requires. 

t  By  secretion  is  meant  merely  a  separation  or  picking  out  from  the  blood. 


GASTRIC  DIGESTION.  147 

sufficient  to  keep  the  mouth  moist.*  It  softens  and 
dissolves  the  food,  and  thus  enables  us  to  get  the 
flavor  or  taste  of  what  we  eat.  It  contains  a  pecu- 
liar organic  principle  called  ptyalin,\  which,  acting 
upon  the  starch  of  the  food,  changes  it  into  glucose 
or  grape-sugar. 

2.  THE  PROCESS  OF  SWALLOWING. — The  food  thus 
finely  pulverized,  softened,  and  so  lubricated  by  the 
viscid  saliva  as  to  prevent  friction  as  it  passes 
over  the  delicate  membranes,  is  conveyed  by  the 
tongue  and  cheek  to  the  back  of  the  mouth.  The 
soft  palate  lifts  to  close  the  nasal  opening  ;  the  epi- 
glottis shuts  down,  and  along  this  bridge  the  food  is 
borne,  without  danger  of  falling  into  the  windpipe 
or  escaping  into  the  nose.  The  muscular  bands  of 
the  throat  now  seize  it  and  take  it  beyond  our  con- 
trol. The  fibers  of  the  oesophagus  contract  above, 
while  they  are  lax  bejow,  and  convey  the  food  by  a 
worm-like  motion  into  the  stomach.  J 

II.  Gastric  Digestion. — 1.  THE  STOMACH  is  an  irreg- 
ular expansion  of  the  digestive  tube.  Its  shape  has 


*  The  presence  and  often  the  thought  of  food  will  "  make  one's  mouth  water." 
Fear  checks  the  flow  of  saliva,  and  hence  the  East  Indians  sometimes  attempt  to 
detect  theft  by  making  those  who  are  suspected  chew  rice.  The  person  from  whom 
it  comes  out  driest  is  adjudged  the  thief  I 

t  One  part  of  ptyalin  will  convert  8,000  parts  of  starch  into  sugar.—  Mialhe. 

The  saliva  has  no  chemical  action  on  the  fats  or  the  albuminous  bodies.  Its  froth- 
iness  enables  it  to  carry  oxygen  into  the  stomach,  and  this  is  thought  to  be  of  ser- 
vice. The  action  of  the  ptyalin  commences  with  great  promptness,  and  sugar  has 
been  detected,  it  is  said,  within  half  a  minute  after  the  starch  was  placed  in  the 
mouth.  The  process,  however,  is  not  finished,  there,  but  continues  after  reaching 
the  stomach.—  Valentin. 

The  saliva  thus  prepares  a  small  portion  of  food  for  absorption  at  once,  and  so 
insures  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  operation  of  digestion  a  supply  of  force-pro- 
ducing material  for  the  immediate  use  of  the  system. 

t  We  can  observe  the  peculiar  motion  of  the  oesophagus  by  watching  a  horse's 
neck  when  he  is  drinking. 


148 


DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 

Fig.  47 


Diagram  of  the  Digestion  of  the  Food.    Notice  how  the  food  is  submitted  to  tht  action 
of  alkaline,  acid,  and  then  alkaline  fluids.    (See  note  p.  15t.) 


GASTRIC  DIGETION. 

been  compared  to  that  of  a  bagpipe.  It  holds  about 
three  pints,  though  it  is  susceptible  of  some  dis- 
tension. It  is  composed  of  an  inner,  mucous  mem- 
brane, which  secretes  the  digestive  fluids  ;  an  outer, 
smooth,  well-lubricated  serous  one,  which  prevents 
friction,  and  between  them  a  stout,  muscular  coat. 
The  last  consists  of  two  principal  layers  of  longi- 
tudinal and  circular  fibers.  When  these  contract, 
they  produce  a  peculiar  churning  motion,  called  the 
peristaltic  (peri,  round  ;  stallein,  to  arrange)  move- 
ment, which  thoroughly  mixes  the  contents  of  the 
stomach.  At  the  further  end,  the  muscular  fibers 
contracting  form  a  gateway,  the  pylorus  (a  gate),  as 
it  is  called,  which  carefully  guards  the  exit,  and 
allows  no  food  to  pass  from  the  stomach  until  prop- 
erly prepared.* 

2.  THE  GASTRIC  JUICE. — The  lining  of  the  stomach 
is  soft,  velvety,  and  of  a  pinkish  hue  ;  but,  as  soon  as 
food  is  admitted,  the  blood-vessels  fill,  the  surface 
becomes  of  a  bright  red,  and  soon  there  exudes  from 
the  gastric  glands  a  thin,  colorless  fluid — the  gastric 
juice.  This  is  secreted  to  the  amount  of  twelve 
pounds  per  day.f  Its  acidity  is  probably  due  to 
muriatic  or  lactic  acid — the  acid  of  sour  milk.  It 
contains  a  peculiar  organic  principle  called  pepsin  I 


*  With  a  wise  discretion,  however,  it  opens  for  buttons,  coins,  etc.,  swallowed 
by  accident ;  when  we  overload  the  stomach,  it  seems  to  become  weary  of  constantly 
denying  egress,  and,  finally,  giving  up  in  despair,  lets  everything  through. 

*  The  amount  secreted  by  a  healthy  adult  is  variously  estimated  from  five  to 
thirty-seven  pounds.    As  it  is  re-absorbed  by  the  blood,  there  is  no  loss. 

%  Pepsin  is  prepared  and  sold  as  an  article  of  commerce.  The  best  is  said  to  be 
made  from  the  stomachs  of  young,  healthy  pigs,  which,  just  before  being  killed,  are 
excited  with  savory  food,  that  they  are  not  allowed  to  eat.  One  grain  is  sufficient 
to  dissolve  800  grains  of  coagulated  white  of  egg.  A  tempemture  of  130°  renders 
pepsin  inert. 


150 


DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 


'  . 


(peptein,  to  digest),  which  acts  as  a  ferment  to 
produce  changes  in  the  food,  without  being  itself 
modified. 

The  flow  of  gastric  juice  is  influenced  by  various 
circumstances.  Cold  water  checks  it  for  a  time,  and 
ice  for  a  longer  period.  Anger,  fatigue,  and  anxiety 
delay  and  even  suspend  the  secretion.  The  gastric 
juice  has  no  effect  on  the  fats  or  the  sugars  of  the 
food ;  its  influence  being  mainly  confined  to  the 
albuminous  bodies,  which  it  so  changes  that  they 
become  soluble  in  water.* 

The  food,  reduced  by  the  action  of  the  gastric 
juice  to  a  grayish,  soupy  mass,  called  chyme  (kime), 
escapes  through  that  jealously- guarded  door,  the 
pylorus. 

Fifj.  US. 


A  vertical  Section  of  the  Duodenum,  highly  magnified.     1,  a  fold -like 
2,  epithelium,  or  cuticle  ;    3,  orifices  of  intestinal  glands ;   5,  orifice  of  duodenal 
glands ;  4, 7,  more  highly  magnified  sections  of  the  cells  of  a  duodenal  gland. 

III.  Intestinal  Digestion.  —  The  structure  of  the 
intestines  is  like  that  of  the  stomach.  There  is  the 

*  The  question  is  often  asked  why  the  stomach  itself  is  not  digested  by  the 
gastric  juice,  since  it  belongs  to  the  albuminous  substances.  Some  assign  as  the 
reason  that  life  protects  that  organ,  and  that  living  tissues  cannot  be  digested.  The 
fallacy  of  this  has  been  clearly  shown  by  introducing  the  legs  of  live  frogs  and  the 
ears  of  rabbits  through  an  opening  made  in  a  dog's  stomach,  where  they  were  readily 
digested.  The  latest  opinion  is  that  the  bloorl  which  circulates  so  freely  through  the 
vessels  of  the  lining'of  the  stomach,  being  alkaline,  protects  the  tissue  against  the 
acidity  of  the  gastric  juice. 


INTESTINAL  DIGESTION.  151 

same  outer,  smooth,  serous  membrane  (peritoneum) 
to  prevent  friction,  the  lining  of  mucous  membrane 
to  secrete  the  digestive  fluids,  and  the  muscular 
coating  to  push  the  food  forward.  The  intestines 
are  divided  into  the  small,  and  the  large.  The  first 
part  of  the  former  opens  out  of  the  stomach,  and  is 
called  the  du-o-de'-num,  as  its  length  is  equal  to  the 
breadth  of  twelve  fingers.  Here  the  chyme  is  acted 
upon  by  the  bile,  and  the  pancreatic  juice. 

1.  THE  BILE  is  secreted  by  the  liver.    This  gland 
weighs  about  four  pounds,  and  is  the  largest  in  the 
body.     It  is  located  on  the  right  side,  below  the  dia- 
phragm.    The  bile  is  of  a  dark,  golden  color,  and 
bitter  taste.    About  three  pounds  are  secreted  per 
day.     When  not  needed  for  digestion,  it  is  stored  in 
the  gall  cyst.*    Its  action  on  the  food,  though  not 
fully  understood,  is  necessary  to  life,  f 

2.  THE  PANCREATIC  JUICE  is  a  secretion  of  the 
pancreas,    or    "sweet-bread"  -a  gland   nearly  as 
large  as  the  hand,  lying  behind  the  stomach.     It 
is  alkaline,  and  contains  a  ferment  called  trypsin. 
This   juice  has  the  power  of    changing  starch  to 
sugar.     Its  main  work,  however,  is  in  breaking  up 
the  globules  of  fat  into  myriads  of  minute  particles, 
that  mix  freely  with  water,  and  remain  suspended 
in  it  like  butter  in  new  milk.     The  whole  mass  now 


*  A  gall-bladder  can  be  obtained  from  a  butcher,  and  the  contents  kept  in  a  bottle 
for  examination. 

t  Experiments  have  been  made  with  animals  by  opening  the  gall-bladder  and 
allowing  the  gall  as  secreted  to  flow  out  of  the  body  without  entering  the  stomach. 
Flint  describes  a  case  where  a  dog  was  thus  treated.  Although  plentifully  fed,  he 
died  in  thirty-eight  days.  He  suffered  no  pain,  and  death  came  gradually,  merely 
through  a  failure  of  the  vital  powers.— The  alkaline  bile,  by  neutralizing  the  acid 
contents  of  the  stomach  as  they  flow  into  the  duodenum,  prepares  the  way  for  the* 
pancreatic  juice,  while  the  bile  has  also  a  slight  emulsifying  power  (note  p.  154). 


152 


DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 

Fig.  l#. 


The  Mucous  Membrane  of  the  Ilium,  highly  magnified.  1,  cettulir  structure  of  the 
epithelium,  or  outer  layer ;  2.  a  rein ;  3,  fibrous  layer ;  4.  villi  covered  unth  epithelium ; 
5,  a  villus  in  section,  showing  its  lining  of  epithelium,  with  its  blood-ressels  and  lym- 
phatics ;  6,  a  vttlus  partially  uncovered  ;  7,  a  villus  stripped  of  its  epithelium  ;  8,  lym- 
phatics or  lacteals;  S,  orifices  of  the  glands  opening  between  the  rilli  ;  10, 11, 12, 
glands  ;  13,  capillaries  surrounding  the  orifices  of  the  gland. 

assumes  a  milky  look,  whence  it  is  termed  chyle 
(klle),  and  passes  on  to  the  small  intestine.* 

3.  THE  SMALL  INTESTINE  is  an  intricately-folded- 
tube,  about  twenty  feet  long,  and  from  an  inch  to 
an  inch  and  one-half  in  diameter.  As  the  chyle 
passes  through  this  tortuous  channel,  it  receives 

*  "It  IB  curious  to  observe  that  while  the  gastric  jnice  is  decidedly  acid,  the  fluids 
with  which  the  food  next  comes  into  contact  are  alkaline.  It  is  thus  submitted  to 
the  operation  alternately  of  alkaline,  acid,  and  again  of  alkaline  secretions.  In  the 
herbivora  there  is  also  a  second  acid  juice.  The  reason  of  these  alternations  is  not 
known,  but  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  they  serve  to  make  the  digestion  of  the 
food  more  perfect.  And  although  the  solvent  power  of  the  gastric  juice  is  placid  in 
abeyance  when  its  acidity  is  neutralized  by  the  alkaline  fluids,  yet  it  appears  to  be 
the  case  here,  as  in  respect  to  the  saliva,  that  effects  are  produced  by  the  mixture  of 
the  various  secretions  which  are  poured  together  into  the  digestive  tube,  that  would 
not  result  from  either  alone.'1— Hinton. 


ABSORPTION.  153 

along  the  entire  route  secretions  which  seem  to 
combine  the  action  of  all  the  previous  ones — starch, 
^  fat,  and  albumen  being  equally  affected. 

IV.  Absorption  is  performed  in  two  ways,  by  the 
veins,  and  the  lacteals.  (1.)  The  veins  in  the  stom- 
ach *  immediately  begin  to  take  up  the  water,  salt, 
grape-sugar,  and  other  substances  that  need '  no 
special  preparation.  The  starch,  and  the  albumi- 
nous bodies  are  also  absorbed  as  they  are  properly 
digested,  and  this  process  continues  along  the  whole 
length  of  the  alimentary  canal.  In  the  small  intes- 
tine, there  is  a  multitude  of  tiny  projections  (villi) 
from  the  folds  of  the  mucous  membrane,  more  than 
7000  to  the  square  inch,  giving  it  a  soft,  velvety  look. 
These  little  rootlets,  reaching  out  into  the  milky 
fluid,  drink  into  their  minute  blood-vessels  the 
nutritious  part  of  every  sort  of  fo.od.  (2.)  The 
lacteals  f  (p.  123),  a  set  of  vessels  starting  in  the 
villi  side  by  side  with  the  veins,  absorb  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  fat.  They  convey  the  chyle 
through  the  lymphatics  and  the  thoracic  duct 
(Fig.  43)  to  the  veins,  and  so  within  the  sweep  of 
the  circulation. 

The  Portal  Vein  J  carries  to  the  liver  the  food 
absorbed  by  the  veins  of  the  stomach  and  the  villi 
of  the  intestines.  On  the  way,  it  is  greatly  modified 

*  The  veins  and  the  lacteals  are  separated  from  the  food  by  a  thin,  moist  mem- 
brane, through  the  pores  of  which  the  fluid-food  rapidly  passes,  in  accordance  with 
a  beautiful  law  (Physics,  page  50)  called  the  Osmose  of  liquids.  If  two  liquids  of  dif- 
ferent densities  are  separated  by  an  animal  membrane,  they  will  mix  with  consider- 
able force.  There  is  a  similar  law  regulating  the  interchange  of  gases  through  a 
porous  partition,  in  obedience  to  which  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  blood,  and  the 
oxygen  of  the  lungs,  are  exchanged  through  the  thin  membrane  of  the  air-cells. 

t  From  lac,  milk,  because  of  the  milky  look  given  to  their  contents  by  the  chyle. 

$  So  named  because  it  enters  the  liver  by  a  sort  of  gateway. 


154  DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 

by  the  action  of  the  blood  itself.  In  the  cells  of  the 
liver,  it  undergoes  as  mysterious  a  process  as  that 
performed  by  the  lymphatic  glands,  and  is  then  cast 
into  the  circulation.*  The  food,  potent  with  force, 
is  now  buried  in  that  river  of  life  from  which  the 
body  springs  momentarily  afresh. 

The  Complexity  of  the  process  of  digestion,  as 
compared  with  the  simplicity  of  respiration  and 
circulation,  is  very  marked.  The  mechanical  opera- 
tion of  mastication ;  the  lubrication  of  the  food  by 
mucus  ;  the  provision  for  the  security  of  the  respir- 
atory organs ;  the  grasping  by  the  muscles  of  the 
throat ;  the  churning  movement  of  the  stomach ; 
the  guardianship  of  the  pylorus ;  the  timely  intro- 
duction by  safe  and  protected  channels  of  the  saliva, 
the  gastric  juice,  the  bile,  the  pancreatic  juice,  and 
the  intestinal  fluids,  each  with  its  special  adaptation ; 
the  curious  peristaltic  motion  of  the  intestines  ;  the 
twofold  absorption  by  the  veins  and  the  lacteals ; 
the  final  transformation  in  the  lymphatics,  the  por- 
tal vein,  and  the  liver, — all  these  present  a  com- 
plexity of  detail,  the  necessity  of  which  can  be 
explained  only  when  we  reflect  upon  the  variety  of 
the  substances  we  use  for  food,  and  the  importance 
of  its  thorough  preparation  before  it  is  allowed  to 
enter  the  blood. 

The  Length  of  Time  Required  for  digesting  a  full 
meal  is  from  two  to  four  hours.  It  varies  with  the 

*  In  these  cells,  the  sugar  is  changed  into  a  kind  of  starch  called  glycogen.  This 
is  insoluble,  and  so  is  stored  up  in  the  liver,  and  even  in  the  substance  of  the 
muscles,  until  it  is  needed  by  the  body,  when  it  is  once  more  converted  into  soluble 
sugar  and  taken  up  by  the  circulation."  The  liver  also  changes  the  waste  and  surplus 
albuminous  matter  into  bile,  and  into  urea  and  uric  acid— the  forms  in  which  nitro- 
uenized  waste  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys. 


DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  FOOD.  155 

kind  of  food,  state  of  the  system,  perfection  of  mas- 
tication, etc.  In  the  celebrated  observations  made 
upon  Alexis  St.  Martin  *  by  Dr.  Beaumont,  his  stom- 
ach was  found  empty  in  two  and  a  half  hours  after 
a  meal  of  roast  turkey,  potatoes,  and  bread.  Pigs' 
feet  and  boiled  rice  were  disposed  of  in  an  hour. 
Fresh,  sweet  apples  took  one  and  a  half  hours;' 
boiled  milk,  two  hours  ;  and  unboiled,  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  longer.  In  eggs,  which  occupied  the  same 
time,  the  case  was  reversed,  —  raw  ones  being 
digested  sooner  than  cooked.  Roast  beef  and  mut- 
ton required  three,  and  three  and  a  quarter  hours 
respectively ;  veal,  salt  beef,  and  broiled  chicken 
remained  for  four  hours  ;  and  roast  pork  enjoyed 
the  bad  pre-eminence  of  needing  five  and  a  quarter 
hours. 

Value  of  the  Different  Kinds  of  Food. — BEEF  and 
MUTTON  possess  the  greatest  nutritive  value  of  any 
of  the  meats.  LAMB  is  less  strengthening,  but  more 
delicate.  Like  the  young  of  all  animals,  it  should 
be  thoroughly  cooked,  and  at  a  high  temperature, 
properly  to  develop  its  delicious  flavor.  PORK  has 
much  carbon.  It  sometimes  contains  a  parasite 
called  trichina,  which  may  be  transferred  to  the 
human  system,  producing  disease  and  often  death. 

*  In  1822,  Alexis  St.  Martin,  a  Canadian  in  the  employ  of  the  American  Fur 
Company,  was  accidentally  shot  in  the  left  side.  Two  years  after,  the  wound  was 
entirely  healed,  leaving,  however,  an  opening  about  two  and  a  half  inches  in  cir- 
cumference into  the  stomach.  Through  this  the  mucous  membrane  protruded, 
forming  a  kind  of  valve  which  prevented  the  discharge  of  food  but  could  be  readily 
depressed  by  the  finger,  thus  exposing  the  interior.  For  several  years  he  was  under 
the  care  of  Dr,  Beaumont,  a  skillful  physician,  who  experimented  upon  him  by  giv- 
ing various  kinds  of  food,  and  watching  their  digestion  through  this  opening.  By 
means  of  these  observations,  and  others  performed  on  Katherine  Kutt,  a  woman 
who  had  a  similar  aperture  in  the  stomach,  we  have  very  important  information  as 
to  the  digestibility  of  different  kinds  of  food. 


156  DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 

The  only  preventive  is  thorough  cooking.  FISH  is 
more  watery  than  flesh,  and  many  find  it  difficult 
of  digestion.  Like  meat,  it  loses  its  mineral  con- 
stituents and  natural  juices  when  salted,  and  is 
much  less  nourishing.  Oysters  are  highly  nutri- 
tious, but  are  more  easily  assimilated  when  raw 
than  when  cooked.  MILK  is  a  model  food,  as  it  con- 
tains albumen,  starch,  fat,  and  mineral  matter.  No 
single  substance  can  sustain  life  for  so  long  a  time. 
CHEESE  is  very  nourishing— one  pound  being  equal 
in  value  to  two  of  meat,  but  is  not  adapted  to  a 
weak  stomach.  EGGS  are  most  easily  digested 
when  the  white  is  barely  coagulated  and  the  yolk  is 
unchanged.  BREAD*  should  be  made  of  unbolted 
Hour.  The  bran  of  wheat  furnishes  the  mineral 
matter  we  need  in  our  bones  and  teeth,  gives  the 
bulk  so  essential  to  the  proper  distension  of  the 
organs,  and  by  its  roughness  gently  stimulates  them 
to  action.  CORN  is  rich  in  fat.  It  contains,  how- 
ever, more  indigestible  matter  than  any  other  grain, 
except  oats,  and  is  less  nutritious  than  wheat,  f 
The  POTATO  is  two-thirds  water,  —  the  rest  being 
mainly  starch.  RIPE  FRUITS,  and  those  vegetables 

*  Very  fresh  bread,  warm  biscuit,  etc.,  are  condensed  by  mastication  into  a  pasty 
mass  that  is  not  easily  penetrated  by  the  gastric  juice,  and  hence  they  are  not 
healthful.  In  Germany,  bread  is  not  allowed  to  be  sold  at  the  baker's  till  it  is 
twenty-four  hours  old — a  wise  provision  for  those  who  have  not  strength  to  resist 
temptation.  This  rule  of  eating  may  well  be  adopted  by  every  one  who  cares  more 
for  his  health  than  for  a  gratification  of  his  appetite. 

t  Persons  unaccustomed  to  the  use  of  corn  find  it  liable  to  produce  derangement 
of  the  digestive  organs.  This  was  made  fearfully  apparent  iu  the  prisons  at  Andei- 
sonvillu  during  the  late  civil  war.  The  vegetable  food  of  the  Federal  prisoners  had 
hitherto  been  chiefly  wheat-bread  and  potatoes,— the  corn  bread  so  extensively  used 
at  the  South  being  quite  new  to  most  of  them  as  a  constant  article  of  diet.  It  soon 
became  not  only  loathsom",  but  productive  of  serious  diseases.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  was  the  principal  article  in  the  rations  of  the  Confederate  soldiers,  to  whom  habit 
mnde  it  a  nutrition?  and  wholesome  form  of  food,  as  was  shown  by  tlieir  endurance. 
—Fiinfa  Physiology  of  Alan,  vol.  2,  page  41 


THE  STIMULANTS.  157 

usually  eaten  raw,  dilute  the  more  concentrated 
food,  and  also  supply  the  blood  with  acids,  which 
are  cooling  in  summer,  and  useful,  perhaps,  in 
-—Assimilation . 

The  Stimulants.  —  COFFEE  is  about  half  nitrogen, 
and  the  rest  fatty,  saccharine,  and  mineral  sub- 
stances. It  is,  therefore,  of  much  nutritive  value, 
especially  when  taken  with  milk  and  sugar.  Its 
peculiar  stimulating  property  is  due  to  a  principle 
called  caffeine.  Its  aroma  is  developed  by  browning, 
but  destroyed  by  burning.  No  other  substance  so 
soon  relieves  the  sense  of  fatigue.*  Taken  in 
moderation,  it  clears  the  intellect,  tranquillizes  the 
nerves,  and  usually  leaves  no  unpleasant  reaction. 
It  serves  also  as  a  kind  of  negative  food,  since  it 
retards  the  process  of  waste. 

In  some  cases,  however,  it  produces  a  rush  of 
blood  to  the  head,  and  should  be  at  once  discarded. 
At  the  close  of  a  full  meal  it  hinders  digestion,  and 
at  night  produces  wakefulness.  In  youth,  when  the 
vital  powers  are  strong,  and  the  functions  of  nature 
prompt  in  rallying  from  fatigue,  it  is  not  needed, 
and  may  be  injurious  in  stimulating  a  sensitive 
organization. 

TEA  possesses  an  active  principle  called  theine. 
When  used  moderately,  its  effects  are  similar  to 
those  of  coffee,  except  that  it  rarely  produces  wake- 
fulness.  It  contains  tannin,  which,  if  the  tea  is 
strong,  coagulates  the  albumen  of  the  food — tans  it — 
and  thus  delays  digestion.  In  excess,  tea  causes 

*  In  the  late  civil  war,  the  first  desire  of  the  soldiers  upon  halting  after  a  weari- 
some march,  was  to  make  a  cnp  of  coffee.  This  was  taken  without  milk,  aud  olten 
without  sugar,  yet  was  always  welcome. 


158  DIGESTION  AND   FOOD. 

nervous  tremor,  disturbed  sleep,  palpitation  of  the 
heart,  and  indigestion.* 

CHOCOLATE  contains  much  fat,  and  also  nitro- 
genous matter  resembling  albumen.  Its  active 
principle,  theobromine,\  has  some  of  the  properties  of 
caffeine  and  theine. 

The  Cooking  of  Food  breaks  the  little  cells,  and 
softens  the  fibers  of  which  it  is  composed.  In  broil- 
ing or  roasting  meat,  it  should  be  exposed  to  a  strong 
heat  at  once,  in  order  to  coagulate  the  albumen 
upon  the  outside,  and  thus  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
nutritious  juices.  The  cooking  may  then  be  finished 
at  a  lower  temperature.  The  same  principle  applies 
to  boiling  meat.  In  making  soups,  on  the  contrary, 
the  heat  should  be  applied  slowly,  and  should  reach 
the  boiling  point  for  only  a  few  moments  at  the  close. 
This  prevents  the  coagulation  of  the  albumen. 
Frying  is  an  unhealthful  mode  of  cooking  food, 
as  thereby  the  fat  becomes  partially  disorganized. 

Rapid  Eating  produces  many  evil  results.  1. 
There  is  not  enough  saliva  mixed  with  the  food ;  2. 
The  coarse  pieces  resist  the  action  of  the  digestive 
fluids  ;  3.  The  food  is  washed  down  with  drinks  that 
dilute  the  gastric  juice,  and  hinder  its  work  ;  4.  We 
do  not  appreciate  the  quantity  we  eat  until  the 
stomach  is  overloaded  ;  5.  Failing  to  get  the  taste  of 
our  food,  we  think  it  insipid,  and  hence  use  condi- 

*  Tea  and  coffee  should  be  made  with  boiling  water,  but  should  not  be  boiled 
afterward.  During  the  "steeping'1  process,  BO  customary  in  this  country,  the  vola- 
tile aroma  is  lost  and  a  bitter  principle  extracted.  In  both  Enpland  and  China  it  is 
usual  to  infnse  tea  directly  in  the  urn  from  which  it  is  to  be  drawn.  The  tannin  in 
tea  is  shown  when  a  drop  falls  on  a  knife-blade.  The  black  spot  is  a  taunate  of 
iron— a  compound  of  the  acid  in  the  tea  and  the  metal. 

t  It  is  said  that  Linnaeus,  the  great  botanist,  was  PO  fond  of  chocolate  that  he 
earned  the  cocoa-tree  "  Thcobroma,"  the  food  of  the  gods. 


THE  QUANTITY  AND  QUALITY  OF  FOOD.  159 

ments  that  over-stimulate  the  digestive  organs.  In 
these  various  ways  the  appetite  is  depraved,  the 
stomach  vexed,  the  system  overworked,  and  the 
foundation  of  dyspepsia  laid.* 

The  Quantity  and  Quality  of  Food  required  vary 
with  the  age  and  habits  of  each  individual.  The 
diet  of  a  childf  should  be  largely  vegetable,  and 
more  abundant  than  that  of  an  aged  person.  A 
sedentary  occupation  necessitates  less  food  than  an 
out-door  life.  One  accustomed  to  manual  labor,  011 
entering  school,  should  practice  self-denial  until  his 
system  becomes  fitted  to  the  new  order  of  things. 
He  should  not,  however,  fall  into  the  opposite  error. 
We  read  of  great  men  who  have  lived  on  bread  and 
water,  and  the  conscientious  student  sometimes 
thinks  that,  to  be  great,  he,  too,  must  starve  him- 
self, t  On  the  contrary,  many  of  the  greatest 
workers  are  the  greatest  eaters.  A  powerful  engine 
needs  a  corresponding  furnace.  Only,  we  should  be 
careful  not  to  use  more  fuel  than  is  needed  to  run 
the  machine. 

The  season  should  modify  our  diet.  In  winter,  we 
need  highly  carbonaceous  food,  plenty  of  meat,  fat, 
etc.  ;  but  in  summer  we  should  temper  the  heat  in 
our  corporeal  stoves  with  fruits  and  vegetables. 

The  climate  also  has  its  necessities.     The  inhabi- 


*  When  one  is  compelled  to  eat  in  a  hurry,  as  at  a  railway  station,  he  would  do 
well  to  confine  himself  principal!}'  to  meat  ;  and  to  dilute  this  concentrated  food 
with  fruit,  crackers,  etc.,  taken  afterward  more  leisurely. 

t  In  youth,  repair  exceeds  waste,  and  hence  the  body  grows  rapidly,  and  the  form 
is  plump.  In  middle  life,  repair  and  waste  equal  each  other,  and  growth  ceases. 
In  old  age,  waste  exceeds  repair,  and  hence  the  powers  are  enfeebled  and  the  skin 
lies  in  wrinkles  on  the  shrunken  form. 

t  As  Dr.  Holland  well  remarks,  the  dispensation  of  saw-dust  has  passed  away. 
If  we  desire  a  horse  to  win  the  race,  we  must  give  him  plenty  of  oat». 


160  DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 

tants  of  the  frigid  north  have  an  almost  insatiable 
longing  for  fat.*  Thus,  in  1812,  when  the  Allies 
entered  Paris,  the  Cossacks  drank  all  the  oil  from 
the  lamps,  and  left  the  streets  in  darkness.  In  trop- 
ical regions,  a  low,  unstimulating  diet  of  fruits 
forms  the  chief  dependence,  f 

When  Food  should  be  Taken. — On  taking  food, 
the  blood  sets  at  once  to  the  alimentary  canal,  and 
the  energies  are  fixed  upon  the  proper  performance 
of  this  work.  We  should  not,  therefore,  undertake 
hard  study,  labor,  or  exercise  directly  after  a  hearty 
meal.  We  should  give  the  stomach  at  least  half  an 
hour.  He  who  toils  with  brain  or  muscle,  and  thus 
centers  the  blood  in  any  particular  organ,  before  eat- 
ing, should  allow  time  for  the  circulation  to  become 
equalized.  There  should  be  an  interval  of  four  to 
five  hours  between  our  regular  meals,  and  there 
should  be  no  lunching  between  times.  With  young 
children,  where  the  vital  processes  are  more  rapid, 
less  time  may  intervene.  Nothing  should  be  eaten 
within  two  or  three  hours  of  retiring. 

*  Dr.  Hayes,  the  arctic  explorer,  says,  that  the  daily  ration  of  the  Esquimaux 
was  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  of  meat,  one-third  being  fat.  On  one  occasion, 
he  saw  a  man  eat  ten  pounds  of  walrus  flesh  and  blubber  at  a  single  meal.  The  low 
temperature  had  a  remarkable  effect  on  the  members  of  his  own  party,  and  some 
of  them  were  in  the  habit  of  drinking  the  contents  of  the  oil-kettle  with  evident 
rrlish.  Other  travelers  narrate  the  most  incredible  stories  of  the  voracity  of  the 
inhabitants  of  arctic  regions.  Saritcheff,  a  Russian  admiral,  tells  of  a  man  who  in 
his  presence  ate,  nt  a  meal,  a  mess  of  twenty-eight  pounds  of  boiled  rice  and  butter, 
although  he  had  already  partaken  of  bis  breakfast.  Cnpl.  Cochrnnc  further  adds, 
in  narrating  this  statement,  that  he  has  himself  seen  three  of  the  savages  consume  a 
reindeer  at  a  sitting. 

t  A  natural  appetite  for  a  particular  kind  of  food  is  an  expression  not  only  of 
desire  but  of  fitness.  Thus  the  craving  of  childhood  for  sugar  indicates  a  need  of 
the  system.  It  is  questionable  how  far  it  is  proper  to  force  or  persuade  one  to  eat 
that  which  he  disrelishes,  or  his  stomach  loathes.  Life  within  is  linked  with  life 
without.  Each  organ  requires  its  peculiar  nutriment,  and  there  is  often  a  peculiar 
influence  demanded  of  which  we  can  have  no  notice  except  by  natural  instinct. 
Yet,  as  we  are  creatures  of  habit  and  impulse,  we  need  common  sense  and  good 
judgment  to  correct  the  too  often  wayward  promptings  of  an  artificial  craving. 


THE  WONDERS   OF  DIGESTION.  161 

How  Food  should  be  Taken.  —  A  good  laugh  is 
the  best  of  sauces.  The  meal-time  should  be  the 
happiest  hour  of  the  day.  Care  and  grief  are  the 
bitter  foes  of  digestion.  A  cheerful  face  and  a  light 
heart  are  friends  to  long  life,  and  nowhere  do  they 
serve  us  better  than  at  the  table.  God  designed 
that  we  should  enjoy  eating,  and  that,  having 
stopped  before  satiety  was  reached,  we  should  have 
the  satisfaction  always  attendant  on  a  good  work 
well  done. 

Need  of  a  Variety. — Careful  investigations  have 
shown  that  any  one  kind  of  food,  however  nutri- 
tious in  itself,  fails  after  a  time  to  preserve  tho 
highest  working  power  of  the  body.  Our  appetite 
palls  when  we  confine  our  diet  to  a  regular  routine. 
Nature  demands  variety,  and  she  has  furnished  the 
means  of  gratifying  it.* 

The  Wonders  of  Digestion. — We  can  understand 
much  of  the  process  of  digestion.  We  can  look 
into  the  stomach  and  trace  its  various  steps.  In- 
deed, the  chemist  can  reproduce  in  his  laboratory 
many  of  the  operations  ;  ';  a  step  further,"  as  Fonte- 
nelle  has  said,  "and  he  would  surprise  nature  in  the 
very  act."  Just  here,  when  he  seems  so  successful, 

*  "  She  opens  her  hand,  and  pours  forth  to  man  the  treasures  of  every  land  and 
every  sea,  because  she  would  give  to  him  a  wido  and  vigorous  life,  participant  of  all 
variety.  For  him  the  cornfields  wave  their  golden  grain— wheat,  rye,  oats,  maize,  or 
rice,  each  different,  but  alike  sufficing.  Freely  for  him  the  palm,  the  date,  the 
banana,  the  bread-fruit  tree,  the  pine,  spread  out  a  harvest  on  the  air;  and  pleasant 
apple,  plum,  or  peach  solicit  his  ready  hand.  Beneath  his  foot  lie  stored  the  starch 
of  the  potato,  the  gluten  of  the  turnip,  the  sugar  of  the  beet ;  while  all  the  inter- 
mediate space  is  rich  with  juicy  herbs.  • 

"  Nature  bids  him  eat  and  be  merry ;  adding  to  his  feast  the  solid  flesh  of  bird, 
and  beast,-and  fish,  prepared  as  victims  for  Ihe  sacrifice:  firm  muscle  to  make 
strong  the  arm  of  toil,  in  the  industrious  temperate  zone ;  and  massive  ribs  of 
fat  to  kindle  inward  fires  for  the  sad  d\veUe:-i»  under  Arctic  skies."— Health  and  its 
Conditions. — Hinton, 


162  DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 

he  is  compelled  to  pause.  At  the  threshold  of  life 
the  wisest  physiologist  reverently  admires,  wonders, 
and  worships. 

How  strange  is  this  transformation  of  food  to 
flesh  !  We  make  a  meal  of  meat,  vegetables,  and 
drink.  Ground  by  the  teeth,  mixed  by  the  stomach, 
dissolved  by  the  digestive  fluids,  it  is  swept  through 
the  body.  Each  organ,  as  it  passes,  snatches  its 
particular  food.  Within  the  cells  of  the  tissues  *  it 
is  transformed  into  the  soft,  sensitive  brain,  or  the 
hard,  callous  bone ;  into  briny  tears,  or  bland  saliva, 
or  acrid  perspiration  ;  bile  for  digestion,  oil  for  the 
hair,  nails  for  the  fingers,  and  flesh  for  the  cheek. 

Within  us  is  an  Almighty  Architect,  who  super- 
intends a  thousand  builders,  which  make  in  a  way 
past  all  human  comprehension,  here  a  fiber  of  a 
muscle,  there  a  filament  of  a  nerve  ;  here  construct- 
ing a  bone,  there  uniting  a  tendon, — fashioning  each 
with  scrupulous  care  and  unerring  nicety,  f  So, 
without  sound  of  builder  or  stroke  of  hammer, 
goes  up,  day  by  day,  the  body — the  glorious  temple 
of  the  soul. 

Diseases,  etc.  —  1.  DYSPEPSIA,  or  indigestion  of 
food,  is  generally  caused  by  an  over-taxing  of  the 
digestive  organs.  Too  much  food  is  used,  and  the 


*  As  the  body  is  composed  of  individual  organ?,  and  each  organ  of  separate 
eo  each  tissue  is  made  np  of  minnte  cells.  Each  cell  is  a  little  world  by 
itself,  too  em:\ll  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  bat  open  to  the  microscope.  It  has 
its  own  form  and  constitution  as  much  as  a  special  organ  hi  the  body.  It 
absorbs  from  the  blood  such  food  *s  suits  its  purpose?  Moreover  the  number  of 
cells  in  an  organ  is  as  constant  as  the  number  of  organs.  As  the  organs  expand  with 
the  growth  of  the  body,  so  the  cells  of  each  tissue  enlarge,  but  shrink  again  with  age 
and  the  decline  of  life.  Life  begins  and  ends  in  a  celL— See  Appleton's  Cyclopedia^ 
Art.  "Absorption." 

t  See  Cooke's  Religion  and  Chemistry,  page  236. 


ALCOHOL.  163 

entire  system  is  burdened  by  the  excess.  Meals  are 
taken  at  irregular  hours,  when  the  fluids  are  not 
ready.  A  hearty  supper  is  eaten  when  the  body, 
wearied  with  the  day's  labor,  demands  rest.  The 
appetite  craves  no  food  when  the  digestion  is  en- 
feebled, but  stimulants  and  condiments  excite  it, 
and  the  unwilling  organs  are  oppressed  by  that 
which  they  cannot  properly  manage. 

Strong  tea,  alcoholic  drinks,  and  tobacco  derange 
the  alimentary  function. 

Too  great  variety  of  dishes,  rich  food,  tempting 
flavors, — all  lead  to  an  overloading  of  the  stomach. 
This  patient,  long-suffering  member  at  last  wears 
out.  Pain,  discomfort,  diseases  of  the  digestive 
organs,  and  insufficient  nutrition  are  the  penalties 
of  violated  laws. 

2.  THE  MUMPS  are  a  swelling  of  the  parotid — one 
of  the  salivary  glands  (Fig.  46).  The  disease  is  gen- 
erally epidemic,  and  the  patient  should  be  carefully 
secluded  for  the  sake  of  others  as  well  as  himself. 
The  swelling  may  be  allowed  to  take  its  course. 
Relief  from  pain  is  often  experienced  by  applying 
flannels  wrung  out  of  hot  water.  Great  care  should 
be  used  not  to  check  the  inflammation,  and,  on  first 
going  out  after  recovery,  not  to  take  cold. 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS   AND   NARCOTICS. 

1 .  ALCOHOL   (Continued  from  p.  1 34). 

Relation   of  Alcohol   to    the   Digestive    Organs.— 
s  Alcohol  a  Food  ?    To  answer  this  question,  let  us 


164  DIGESTION  AND   FOOD. 

make  a  comparison.  If  you  receive  into  your  stom- 
ach a  piece  of  bread  or  beef,  Nature  -welcomes  its 
presence.  The  juices  of  the  system  at  once  take 
hold  of  it,  dissolve  it,  and  transform  it  for  the  uses 
of  the  body.  A  million  tiny  fingers  (lacteals  and 
veins)  reach  out  to  grasp  it,  work  it  over,  and  carry  it 
into  the  circulation.  The  blood  bears  it  onward 
wherever  it  is  needed  to  mend  or  to  build  "  The 
house  you  live  in."  Soon,  it  is  no  longer  bread 
or  beef  ;  it  is  flesh  on  your  arm  ;  its  chemical 
energy  is  imparted  to  you,  and  it  becomes  your 
strength. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  take  into  your  stomach 
a  little  alcohol,  it  receives  no  such  welcome.  Nature 
treats  it  as  a  poison,  and  seeks  to  rid  herself  of  the 
intruder  as  soon  as  possible.*  The  juices  of  the  sys- 
tem will  flow  from  every  pore  to  dilute  and  weaken 
it,  and  to  prevent  its  shriveling  up  the  delicate 
membranes  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  The 
veins  will  take  it  up  and  bear  it  rapidly  through 
the  system.  Every  organ  of  elimination,  all  the 
scavengers  of  the  body — the  lungs,  the  kidneys, 
the  perspiration-glands,  at  once  set  to  work  to 

*  Pood  is  digested,  alcohol  is  not.  Pood  warms  the  blood,  directly  or  indirectly ; 
alcohol  lowers  the  temperature.  Food  nourishes  the  body,  in  the  sense  of  assimi- 
lating itself  to  the  tissues  ;  alcohol  does  not.  Food  makes  blood ;  alcohol  never 
does  anything  more  innocent  than  mixing  with  it.  Food  feeds  the  blood-cells; 
alcohol  destroys  them.  Food  excites,  in  health,  to  normal  action  only  ;  alcohol 
tends  to  inflammation  and  disease.  Food  gives  force  to  the  body;  alcohol  excites 
re  iction  and  wastes  force,  in  the  first  place,  and  in  the  second,  as  a  true  narcotic, 
represses  vital  action  and  corresponding  nutrition.— If  alcohol  does  not  net  like 
food,  neither  does  it  behave  like  water.  Water  is  the  subtle  but  innocent  vehicle 
of  circulation,  which  dissolves  the  solid  food,  holds  in  play  the  chemical  and  vital 
reactions  of  the  tissues,  conveys  the  nutritive  solutions  from  cell  to  cell,  from  tube 
to  tube,  and  carries  off  and  expels  the  effete  matter.  Water  neither  irritates  tissue, 
wastes  force,  nor  suppresses  vital  action  :  whereas  alcohol  docs  all  three.  Alcohol 
hardens  solid  tissue,  thickens  the  blood  narcotizes  the  m TVCS,  and  in  every  con- 
ceivable direction  antagonizes  the  operation  and  function  of  water.— Lees'*  Text-book. 


ALCOHOL.  185 

throw  off  the  enemy.  So  surely  is  this  the  case, 
that  the  breath  of  a  person  who  has  drunk  only  a 
single  glass  of  the  lightest  beer  will  betray  the  fact. 

The  alcohol  thus  eliminated  is  entirely  un- 
changed.* Nature  apparently  makes  no  effort  to 
appropriate  it.  It  courses  everywhere  through  the 
circulation,  and  into  the  great  organs,  with  all  its 
properties  unmodified.  "Dr.  A.  B.  Hall  of  Boston 
states  that  he  once  bled  a  man  who  was  dead  drunk. 
The  blood  was  caught  in  a  bowl,  and,  on  applying  a 
lighted  match,  the  liquid  blazed  up  at  once.  Ex- 
periment shows  that  to  do  this  it  must  have  con- 
tained 20  per  cent,  of  alcohol." 

Alcohol,  then,  is  not,  like  bread  or  beef,  taken 
hold  of,  broken  up  by  the  mysterious  process  of  diges- 
tion, and  used  by  the  body.  "  It  cannot  therefore  be 
regarded  as  an  aliment,"  or  food. — (Flint.)  "Beer, 
wine,  and  spirits,"  says  Leibig,  "  contain  no  element 
capable  of  entering  into  the  composition  of  the  blood 
or  the  muscular  fiber."  "That  alcohol  is  incapable 
of  forming  any  part  of  the  body,"  remarks  Cameron, 

*  Because  of  the  difficulties  of  such  an  experiment,  we  have  not  yet  been  able  to 
account  satisfactorily  by  the  excretions  for  all  the  alcohol  taken  into  the  stomach. 
This  remains  as  yet  one  of  the  unsolved  problems  of  physiological  chemistry.  To 
collect  the  whole  of  the  insensible  perspiration,  for  example,  is  well  nigh  impossible. 
It  was  supposed  at  one  time  that  a  part  of  the  alcohol  is  oxidized — i.  e.,  burned,  in 
the  system.  But  such  c.  process  would  impart  heat,  and  it  is  now  proved  that  alcohol 
cools,  instead  of  warms,  the  blood.  Moreover,  the  closest  analysis  fails  to  defect  in 
the  circulation  any  trace  of  the  products  of  alcoholic  combustion,  such  as  aldehyde 
and  acetic  acid.  "  The  fact,"  says  Flint,  "  that  alcohol  is  always  eliminated,  even 
when  drank  in  minute  quantity,  and  that  it?  elimination  continues  for  a  considerable 
time,  gradually  diminishing,  renders  it  probable  that  all  that  is  taken  into  the  body 
is  removed." 

The  small  amount  of  nutritive  substance,  chiefly  sugar  derived  from  the  grain  or 
fruit  used  in  Ihe  manufacture  of  beer  or  wine,  can  not,  of  course,  be  compared  with 
that  contained  in  bread  or  beef  at  the  same  cost.    Leibig  says,  in  his  Letters  c 
Chemistry,  "We  can  prove,  with  mathematical  certainty,  that  as  much  flour  a? 

lie  on  the  point  of  a  table-knife  is  more  nutritious  than  eight  quarts  of  the  be ' 

varian  beer." 


1GG 


DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 


'•  is  admitted  by  all  physiologists.  It  cannot  be  con- 
verted into  brain,  nerve,  muscle,  or  blood." 

Effect  upon  the  Digestion.— Experiments  tend  to 
prove  that  alcohol  coagulates  and  precipitates  the 
pepsin  from  the"  gastric  juice,  and  so  puts  a  stop  to 
its  great  work  in  the  process  of  digestion.* 

The  greed  of  alcohol  for  water  causes  it  to  imbibe 
moisture  from  the  tissues  and  juices,  and  to  inflame 
the  delicate  mucous  membrane.  It  shows  the  power 
of  nature  to  adapt  herself  to  circumstances,  that  the 
soft,  velvety  lining  of  the  throat  and  stomach  should 
come  at  length  to  endure  the  presence  of  a  fiery 
liquid  which,  undiluted,  would  soon  shrivel  and 
destroy  it.  In  self-defence,  the  juices  pour  in  to 
weaken  the  alcohol,  and  it  is  soon  hurried  into  the 
circulation.  Before  this  can  be  done,  "it  must 
absorb  about  three  times  its  bulk  of  water  ; "  hence, 
very  strong  liquor  may  be  retained  in  the  stomach 
long  enough  to  interfere  seriously  with  the  diges- 


*  The  experiments  of  Dr.  Henry  Munroe,  of  Hull,  published  in  the  London 
Medical  Journal,  are  here  summarized  as  showing  that  the  tendency  to  retard 
digestion  is  common  to  all  forms  of  alcoholic  drinks. 


FinelyMinced 
Beef. 

2d  Hour. 

4th  Hour. 

6th  Hour. 

8th  Hour. 

10th  Hour. 

I. 

Gastric  juice 
and  water. 

Beef 
opaque. 

Digesting  and 
separating. 

Beef  much 
lessened. 

Broken  up 
into  nhreds. 

Dissolved 
like  soup. 

' 

n. 

Gastric  juice 
with  alcohol. 

No  alteration 
perceptible. 

Slightly 
opaque,  but 
beef 
unchanged. 

Slight  coating 
on  beef. 

No  visible 
change. 

Solid  on 
cooling. 

/'•   /l-'l/l 

precini- 

m. 

*?stric  juice 
^paleale. 

No 
change. 

Cloudv, 
with  fur  on 
beef. 

Beef  partly 
loosened. 

No  further 
change. 

No  diges- 
tion.   /'(/>- 
fin  pre- 
cipitated. 

ban 

ceivs 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL  UPON  THE  STOMACH. 


Healthful 


m 


Moderate  Drinking.  Drunkards. 


Ulcerous. 


Death  byDehnumTremens 


The  Cancerous  Stomach. 


ALCOHOL.  16? 

tion,  and  to  injure  the  lining  coat.  Habitual  use  of 
alcohol  permanently  dilates  the  blood-vessels  ;  thick- 
ens and  hardens  the  membranes ;  in  some  cases, 
ulcerates  the  surface  ;  and,  finally,  "so  weakens  the 
assimilation  that  the  proper  supply  of  food  cannot 
be  appropriated/' — (Flint.)* 

Effect  upon  the  Liver. — Alcohol  is  carried  by  the 
portal  vein  directly  to  the  liver.  This  organ,  after 
the  brain,  holds  the  largest  share.  The  influence 
of  the  poison  is  here  easily  traced.  "  The  color 
of  the  bile  is  soon  changed  from  yellow  to  green, 
and  even  black ; "  the  connective  tissue  between 
the  lobules  becomes  inflamed ;  and,  in  the  case  of  a 
confirmed  drunkard,  hardened  and  shrunk,  the  sur- 
face often  assuming  a  nodulated  appearance  known 
as  the  "  hob-nailed  liver."  Morbid  matter  is  some- 
times deposited,  causing  what  is  called  "  Fatty  de- 
generation," so  that  the  liver  is  increased  to  twice 
or  thrice  its  natural  size. 

Effect  upon  the  Kidneys.— The  kidneys,  like  the 
liver,  are  liable  in  time  to  undergo,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  alcohol,  a  "  Fatty  degeneration,"  in  which 
the  cells  become  filled  with  particles  of  fat ;  f  the 
vessels  lose  their  contractility ;  and,  worst  of  all, 
the  membranes  may  be  so  modified  as  to  allow  the 


*  The  case  of  St.  Martin  (p.  155)  gave  an  excellent  opportunity  to  watch  the 
action  of  alcohol  upon  the  stomach.  Dr.  Beaumont  summarized  his  experiments 
thus  :  "  The  free,  ordinary  use  of  any  intoxicating  liquor,  when  continued  for  some 
days,  invariably  produced  inflammation,  ulcerous  patches,  and,  finally,  a  discharge 
cf  morhid  matter  tinged  with  hlood."  Yet  St.  Martin  never  complained  of  pain  in 
las  stomach,  the  narcotic  influence  of  the  alcohol  preventing  the  signal  of  clanger 
that  Nature  ordinarily  gives. 

t  "Disabled  hy  the  fatty  deposits,  the  kidneys  are  unable  to  separate  the  waste 
matter  coming  to  them  for  elimination  from  the  system.  The  poisonous  material  ia 
poured  back  into  the  circulation,  and  often  delirium  ensues."— Hubbard. 


168  DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 

albuminous  part  of  the  blood  to  filter  through  them, 
and  so  rob  the  body  of  one  of  its  most  valuable  con- 
stituents.* 

Does  Alcohol  Impart  Heat?— During  the  first  flush 
after  drinking  wine,  for  example,  a  sense  of  warmth 
is  felt.  This  is  due  to  the  tides  of  warm  blood  that 
are  being  sent  to  the  surface  of  the  body,  owing  to 
the  "Vascular  enlargement"  and  the  rapid  pump- 
ing of  the  heart.  There  is,  however,  no  fresh  heat 
developed.  On  the  contrary,  the  bringing  the  blood 
to  the  surface  causes  it  to  cool  faster,  reaction  sets 
in,  a  chilliness  is  experienced  as  one  becomes  sober, 
and  a  delicate  thermometer  placed  under  the  tongue 
of  the  inebriate  may  show  a  fall  of  even  two  degrees 
below  the  standard  temperature  of  the  body.  Sev- 
eral hours  are  required  to  restore  the  usual  heat. 

As  early  as  1850,  Dr.  N.  S.  Davis,  of  Chicago,  ex-President  of  the 
American  Medical  Association,  instituted  an  extensive  series  of  experi- 
ments to  determine  the  effect  of  the  different  articles  of  food  and  drinks 
on  the  temperature  of  the  system.  He  conclusively  proved  that,  during 
the  digestion  of  all  kinds  of  food,  the  temperature  of  the  body  is 
increased,  but  when  alcohol  is  taken,  either  in  the  form  of  fermented 
or  distilled  beverages,  the  temperature  begins  to  fall  within  a  half- 
hour,  and  continues  to  decrease  for  two  or  three  hours,  and  that  the 
reduction  of  temperature,  in  extent  as  well  as  in  duration,  is  in  exact 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  alcohol  taken. 

It  naturally  follows  that,  contrary  to  the  accepted 
opinion,  liquor  does  not  fortify  against  cold.  The 
experience  of  travelers  at  the  North  coincides  with 
that  of  Dr.  Hayes,  the  Arctic  explorer,  who  says : 


*  This  deterioration  of  structure  frequently  gives  rise  to  what  is  known  as 
"  Bri^ht's  Disease.11— Bickardson. 


ALCOHOL.  169 

"  While  fat  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  inhabitants 
and  travelers  in  arctic  countries,  alcohol  is,  in 
almost  any  shape,  not  only  completely  useless,  but 
positively  injurious.  I  have  known  strong,  able- 
bodied  men  to  become  utterly  incapable  of  resisting 
cold  in  consequence  of  the  long-continued  use  of 
alcoholic  drink." 

Does  Alcohol  Impart  Strength? — Experience  shows 
that  alcohol  weakens  the  power  of  undergoing  severe 
bodily  exertion.  *  Men  who  are  in  training  for  run- 
ning, rowing,  and  other  contests  where  great  strength 
is  required,  deny  themselves  all  liquors,  even  when 
they  are  ordinarily  accustomed  to  their  use. 

Dr.  Richardson  made  some  interesting  experiments  to  show  the 
influence  of  alcohol  upon  muscular  contraction.  He  carefully  weighted 
the  hind  leg  of  a  frog,  and,  by  means  of  electricity,  stimula- 
ting the  muscle  to  its  utmost  power  of  contraction,  he  found  out 
how  much  the  frog  could  lift.  Then  administering  alcohol,  he  dis- 
covered that  the  response  of  the  muscle  to  the  electrical  current  became 
feebler  and  feebler,  as  the  narcotic  began  to  take  effect,  until,  at  last, 
the  animal  could  raise  less  than  half  the  amount  it  lifted  by  the  nat- 
ural contraction  when  uninfluenced  by  alcohol. 

Effect  upon  the  Waste  of  the  Body.— The  ten- 
dency of  alcohol  is  to  cause  a  formation  of  an  un- 
stable substance  resembling  fat,f  and  so  the  use  of 

*  Dr.  McRae,  in  sneaking  of  Arctic  exploration,  at  the  meeting  of  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  held  at  Montreal  in  1850,  said  •  "  Tuo 
ipoinenl  that  a  man  had  swallowed  a  drink  of  spirits,  it  was  certain  that  his  day's 
vork  was  nearly  at  an  end.  It  was  ahsolntely  necessary  that  the  rule  of  totcl 
abstinence  he  rigidly  enforced,  if  we  would  accomplish  our  day's  task.  The  use  of 
liquor  as  a  beverage  when  we  had  work  on  hand,  in  that  terrific  cold,  was  oat  of  the 
question. v 

t  "The  molecular  deposits  equalizing  the  waste  of  the  system  do  not  go  on  regu- 
larly under  the  influence  of  alcohol  ;  the  tissues  are  not  kept  up  to  their  standard  ; 
vi  d,  in  time,  their  composition  is  changed  hy  a  deposit  of  an  amorphous  matter 
.•esemhling  fat.  This  is  an  unstable  puhstance,  and  the  functions  of  animal  life  ali 
retrograde."- Stf&ioTd  on  The  Opium  HaMt  and  Alcofu>lisr,i. 


170  DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 

liquor  for  even  a  short  time  will  increase  the 
weight.  But  a  more  marked  influence  is  to  check 
the  ordinary  waste  of  the  system,  so  that  "the 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled  from  the  lungs 
may  be  reduced  as  much  as  30  to  50  per  cent. — (Hin- 
ton.)  The  life-process  is  one  of  incessant  change. 
Its  rapidity  is  essential  to  vigor  and  strength. 
When  the  functions  are  in  full  play,  each  organ  is 
being  constantly  torn  down,  and  as  constantly  re- 
built with  the  materials  furnished  from  cur  food. 
Anything  that  checks  this  oxidation  of  the  tissues, 
or  hinders  the  deposition  of  new  matter,  disturbs 
the  vital  functions.  Both  these  results  are  the 
inevitable  effects  of  alcohol ;  for,  since  the  blood 
contains  less  oxygen  and  more  carbonic  acid,  and 
the  power  of  assimilating  the  food  is  decreased,  it 
follows  that  every  process  of  waste  and  repair  must 
be  correspondingly  weakened.  The  person  using 
liquor  consequently  needs  less  bread  and  beef,  and 
so  alcohol  seems  to  him  a  food — a  radical  error,  as 
we  have  shown. 

Alcohol  Creates  a  Progressive  Appetite  for  itself. 
—When  liquor  is  taken,  even  in  the  most  moderate 
quantity,  it  soon  becomes  necessary,  and  then 
arises  a  craving  demand  for  an  increased  amount  to 
produce  the  original  effect.  No  food  creates  this 
constantly-augmenting  want.  A  cup  of  milk  drank 
at  dinner  does  not  lead  one  to  go  on,  day  by  day, 
drinking  more  and  more  milk,  until  to  get  milk 
becomes  the  one  great  longing  of  the  whole  being. 
Yet  this  is  the  almost  universal  effect  of  alcohol. 
Hunger  is  satisfied  by  any  nutritious  food :  the 
dram-drinker's  thirst  demands  alcohol.  The  com- 


ALCOHOL.  171 

mon  experience  of  mankind  teaches  us  the  immi- 
nent peril  that  attends  the  formation  of  this  pro- 
gressive poison-habit.  A  single  glass  taken  as  a 
tonic  may  lead  to  the  drunkard's  grave. 

Worse  than  this,  the  alcoholic  craving  may  be 
transmitted  from  father  to  son,  and  young  persons 
often  find  themselves  cursed  with  a  terrible  disease 
known  as  alcoholism — a  keen,  morbid  appetite  for 
liquor  that  demands  gratification  at  any  cost — 
stamped  upon  their  very  being  through  the  reckless 
indulgence  of  this  habit  on  the  part  of  some  one 
of  their  ancestors.* 

The  Law  of  Heredity  is,  in  this  connection,  well 
worth  consideration.  "  The  world  is  beginning  to 
perceive,"  says  Francis  Galton,  "that  the  life  of 
each  individual  is,  in  some  real  sense,  a  continuation 
of  the  lives  of  his  ancestors."  "  Each  of  us  is  the 
footing  up  of  a  double  column  of  figures  that  goes 
back  to  the  first  pair."  "We  are  omnibuses,"  remarks 
Holmes,  "  in  which  all  our  ancestors  ride."  We  in- 
herit from  our  parents  our  features,  our  physical 
vigor,  our  mental  faculties,  and  even  much  of  our 
moral  character.  Often,  when  one  generation  is 
skipped,  the  qualities  will  reappear  in  the  following 
one.  The  virtues,  as  well  as  the  vices,  of  our  fore- 
fathers, have  added  to,  or  subtracted  from,  the 
strength  of  our  brain  and  muscle.  The  evil  tenden- 
cies of  our  natures,  which  it  is  the  struggle  of  our 

*  The  American  Medical  Association,  at  their  meeting  in  St.  Paul,  Minnesota 
(1883),  restated  in  a  series  of  resolutions  their  conviction,  that  "Alcohol  should  be 
classed  with  other  powerful  drugs ;  that  when  prescribed  medically,  it  should  be 
done  with  conscientious  caution  and  a  sense  of  great  responsibility.  That  used  as  a 
beverage  it  is  productive  of  a  large  amount  of  physical  and  mental  disease  ;  that  it 
entails  diseased  and  enfeebled  constitutions  upon  offspring,  and  is  the  cause  of  a  large 
percentage  of  the  crime  and  pauperism  of  our  large  cities  and  country." 


172  PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS. 

lives  to  resist,  constitute  a  part  of  our  heir-looms 
from  the  past.  Our  descendants,  in  turn,  will  have 
reason  to  bless  us  only  if  we  hand  down  to  them  a 
pure  healthy  physical,  mental,  and  moral  being. 

"  There  is  a  marked  tendency  in  nature  to  transmit 
all  diseased  conditions.  Thus,  the  children  of  con- 
sumptive parents  are  apt  to  be  consumptives.  But 
of  all  agents,  alcohol  is  the  most  potent  in  establish- 
ing a  heredity  that  exhibits  itself  in  the  destruction 
of  mind  and  body.*  Its  malign  influence  was  ob- 
served by  the  ancients  long  before  the  production  of 
whisky  or  brandy,  or  other  distilled  liquors,  and 
when  fermented  liquors  or  wines  only  were  known. 
Aristotle  says,  '  Drunken  women  have  children  like 
unto  themselves,'  and  Plutarch  remarks,  '  One 
drunkard  is  the  father  of  another.'  The  drunkard 
by  inheritance  is  a  more  helpless  slave  than  his  pro- 
genitor, and  his  children  are  more  helpless  still,  un- 
less on  the  mother's  side  there  is  an  untainted  blood. 
For  there  is  not  only  a  propensity  transmitted,  but 
an  actual  disease  of  the  nervous  system." — Dr.  Wil- 
lard  Parker.  \ 


PRACTICAL      QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  do  clothing  and  shelter  economize  food  ? 

2.  Is  it  well  to  take  a  long  walk  before  breakfast  ? 

*  "  Nearly  all  the  diseases  springing  from  indulgence  in  distilled  and  fermented 
liquors  are  liable  to  become  hereditary,  and  to  descend  to  at  least  three  or  four 
generations,  unless  starved  out  by  uncompromising  abstinence.  But  the  distressing 
aspect  of  the  heredity  of  alcohol  is  the  transmitted  drink-crave.  This  is  no  dream  of 
an  enthusiast,  but  the  result  of  a  natural  law.  Men  and  women  upon  whom  this 
dread  inheritance  has  been  forced  are  everywhere  around  us,  bravely  struggling  to 
lead  a  sober  life.'1— Dr.  Norman  Kerr. 

t  The  subject  of  alcohol  is  continued  in  the  chapter  on  the  Nervous  System. 


PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS.  173 

3.  Why  is  warm  food  easier  to  digest  than  cold  ? 

4.  Why  is  salt  beef  less  nutritious  than  fresh  ?  * 

5.  What  should  be  the  food  of  a  man  recovering  from  a  fever  ? 

6.  Is  a  cup  of  black  coffee  a  healthful  close  to  a  hearty  dinner  ? 

7.  Should  ice-water  be  used  at  a  meal  ? 

8.  Why  is  strong  tea  or  coffee  injurious  ? 

9.  Should  food  or  drink  be  taken  hot  ? 

10.  Are  fruit-cakes,  rich  pastry,  and  puddings  wholesome? 

11.  Why  are  warm  biscuit  and  bread  hard  of  digestion? 

12.  Should  any  stimulants  be  used  in  youth  ? 

13.  Why  should  bread  be  made  spongy? 

14.  Which  should  remain  longer  in  the  mouth,  bread  or  meat  ? 

15.  Why  should  cold  water  be  used  in  making  soup,  and  hot  water 
in  boiling  meat  ? 

16.  Name  the  injurious  effects  of  over- eating. 

17.  Why  do  not  buckwheat  cakes,  with  syrup  and  butter,  taste  as 
well  in  July  as  in  January  ? 

18.  Why  is  a  late  supper  injurious  ? 

19.  What  makes  a  man  "  bilious  "  ? 

20.  What  is  the  best  remedy?    Am.  Diet  to  give  the  organs  rest, 
and  active  exercise  to  arouse  the  secretions  and  the  circulation. 

21.  What  is  the  practical  use  of  hunger  ? 

, -•'  22.  How  can  jugglers  drink  when  standing  on  their  heads  ? 

23.  Why  do  we  relish  butter  on  bread  ? 

24.  What  would  you  do  if  you  had  taken  arsenic  by  mistake  ?      See 
Appendix. 

25.  Why  should  ham  and  sausage  be  thoroughly  cooked  ? 

26.  Why  do  we  wish  butter  on  fish,  eggs  with  tapioca,  oil  on  salad, 
and  milk  with  rice  ? 

27.  Explain  the  relation  of  food  to  exercise. 

*  The  French  Academicians  found  that  flesh  soaked  in  water  so  as  to  deprive  it 
of  its  mineral  matter  and  juices,  lost  its  nutritive  value,  and  that  animals  fed  on  it 
soon  died.  Indeed,  for  all  purposes  of  nutrition,  liebig  said  it  was  no  better  than 
stones,  and  the  utmost  torments  of  hunger  were  hardly  sufficient,  to  induce  them  to 
continue  the  diet.  There  was  plenty  of  nutritive  food,  but  there  was  no  medium  for 
its  solution  and  absorption,  and  hence  it  was  useless. 


174  PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS. 

28.  How  do  you  explain  the  difference  in  the  manner  of  eating  be- 
tween carnivorous  and  herbivorous  animals  ? 

29.  Why  is  a  child's  face  plump  and  an  old  man's  wrinkled  ? 

30.  Show  how  life  depends  on  repair  and  waste. 

31.  What  is  the  difference  between  the  decay  of  the  teeth  and  the 
constant  decay  of  the  body  ? 

32.  Should  biscuit  and  cake  containing  yellow  spots  of  soda  be 
eaten  ? 

33.  Tell  how  the  body  is  composed  of  organs,  organs  are  made  up 
of  tissues,  and  tissues  consist  of  cells. 

34.  Why  do  we  not  need  to  drink  three  pints  of  water  per  day  ? 

35.  Why,  during  a  pestilence,  are  those  who  use  liquors  as  a  bev- 
erage the  first,  and  often  the  only  victims  ? 

36.  What  two  secretions  seem  to  have  the  same  general  use  ? 

37.  How  may  the  digestive  organs  be  strengthened  ?  — • 

38.  Is  the  old  rule,  "  after  dinner  sit  awhile,"  a  good  one  ? 

39.  What  would  you  do  if  you  had  taken  laudanum  by  mistake? 
Paris  Green  ?    Sugar  of  lead  ?  Oxalic  acid  ?  Phosphorus  from  matches? 
Ammonia  ?    Corrosive  sublimate  ?    See  Appendix. 

40.  What  is  the  simplest  way  to  produce  vomiting,  so  essential  in 
case  of  accidental  poisoning  V 

41.  In  what  way  does  alcohol  interfere  with  the  digestion? 

42.  Is  alcohol  assimilated  ? 

43.  What  is  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  albuminous  substances? 

44.  Is  there  any  nourishment  in  beer  ?  . 

45.  Show  how  the  excessive  use  of  alcohol  may  first  increase,  and, 
afterward,  decrease,  the  size  of  the  liver. 

46.  Will  liquor  help  one  to  endure  cold  and  exposure? 

47.  What  is  a  fatty  degeneration  of  the  kidneys? 

48.  Contrast  the  action  of  alcohol  and  water  in  the  body. 

49.  Is  alcohol,  in  any  proper  sense  of  the  term,  a  food? 

50.  Does  liquor  strengthen  the  muscles  of  a  working  man  ? 

51.  Is  liquor  a  wholesome  "  tonic  "  ? 

52.  Is  it  a  good  plan  to  take  a  glass  of  liquor  before  dinner? 


VII. 

NERVOUS    SYSTEM 


Mark  then  the  cloven  sphere  that  holds 
All  thoughts  in  its  mysterious  folds, 
That  feels  sensation's  faintest  thrill. 
And  flashes  forth  the  sovereign  will y 
Think  on  the  stormy  world  that  dwells 
Locked  in  its  dim  and  clustering  cells  ; 
The  lightning  gleams  of  power  it  sheds 
Along  its  hollow,  glassy  threads  I " 


"  As  a  king  sits  high  above  his  szibjects  upon  his  throne,  and  from  it 
speaks  behests  that  all  obey,  so  from  the  throne  of  the  brain-cells  is  all  the 
kingdom  of  a  man  directed,  controlled,  and  influenced.  For  this  occupant, 
the  eyes  watch,  the  ears  hear,  the  tongue  tastes,  the  nostrils  smell,  the  skin 
feels.  For  it,  language  is  exhatisted  of  its  treasures,  and  life  of  its  expe- 
rience;  locomotion  is  accomplished,  and  quiet  ensured.  When  it  wills, 
body  and  spirit  are  goaded  like  over-driven  horses.  When  it  allows,  rest 
and  sleep  may  come  for  recuperation.  In  short,  the  slightest  penetration 
may  not  fail  to  perceive  that  all  other  parts  obey  this  part,  and  are  but 
ministers  to  its  necessities" — ODD  HOURS  OF  A  PHYSICIAN. 


ANALYSIS. 


1.  THE  STBUCTUBB. 


2.  ORGANS  OF  THE  NEB- 
vous  SYSTEM 


1.  The  Brain 


ji 

a 


I.  Description. 
"  The  Cerebrum. 
The  Cerebellum. 


3.  HYGIENE  .... 


2.  The  Spinal  Cord.. . .  \  J-  £s P0,ra^!,ition- 

j  2.  Medulla  Oblongata. 

f  1.  Description. 
2.  Motory  and  Sensory. 
I  3.  Transfer  of  Pain. 
|  4.  The  Spinal  Serves— 
31  Pairs. 

3.  The  Nerves 5.  The  Cranial  Nerves— 

12  Pairs. 

6.  Sympathetic  System. 

7.  Crossing  of  Cords. 

8.  Reflex  Action. 

L  9.  Uses  of  Reflex  Action 

•  1.  Brain  Exercise. 
2.  Connection  between  Brain-growth  and  Body- 
growth.  J 
3.  Sleep. 
4.  Effect  of  Sleeping-draughts. 
5.  Sunlight. 


4.  WONDEBS  OF  THE  BBAIN. 


5.  ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS, 
AND  NARCOTICS. 


3co.  l.  Alcohol  (con'd.) 

1.  Effect  of  Alco- 
hol upon  the 
Nervous  Sys- 
tem. 

2.  Effect  upon  the 
3.  Effect  upon  th 
Powers. 

1.  Constituents  of 
2.  Physiological  E 

I.  Stage  of  Excitement. 
2.  Stage     of     Muscular 
Weakness. 
3.  Stage  of  Mental  VVeak- 

II'--.-. 

4.  Stage  of  Uncou  scious- 

iit- 

Brain. 
3  Mental  aod  the  Moral 

Tobacco, 
ffects. 

I  3.  Possible  Disturbances  produced  by  smok- 

4.  Influence  upon  the  Nervous  System 
|  5.  Is  Tobacco  a  Food  ? 
16.  Influence  of  Tobacco  upon  Yonth. 


3  Oninm  J  *•  Description. 

••12.  Physiological  Effects. 

4.  Chloral  Hydrate. 

5.  Chloroform. 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM." 


QTRUCTURE.— The  nervous  system  includes  the 
^  brain,  the  spinal  cord,  and  the  nerves.  It  is 
composed  of  two  kinds  of  matter — the  white,  and  the 
gray.  The  former  consists  of  minute,  milk-white, 
glistening  fibers,  sometimes  as  small  as,.-gT7fjnr  of  an 
inch  in  diameter ;  the  latter  is  made  up  of  small, 
ashen-colored  cells,  forming  a  pulp-like  substance  of 
the  consistency  of  blanc-mange.  f  This  is  often 
gathered  in  little  masses,  termed  ganglions  (gang- 
lion, a  knot),  because,  when  a  nerve  passes  through 
a  group  of  the  cells,  they  give  it  the  appearance  of  a 
knot.  The  nerve-fibers  are  conductors,  while  the 
gray  cells  are  generators,  of  nervous  force.J  The 

*  The  organs  of  circulation,  respiration,  and  digestion,  of  which  we  have  already 
spoken',  are  often  called  the  vegetative  functions,  because  they  belong  also  to  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  Plants  have  a  circulation  of  sap  through  their  cells  correspond- 
ing to  that  of  the  blood  through  the  capillaries.  They  breathe  the  air  through  their 
leaves,  which  act  the  part  of  lungs,  and  they  take  in  food  which  they  change  into 
their  own  structure  by  a  process  which  answers  to  that  of  digestion.  The  plant, 
however,  is  a  mere  collection  of  parts  incapable  of  any  combined  action.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  animal  has  a  nervous  system  which  binds  all  the  organs  together. 

t  In  addition  to  the  cells,  the  gray  substance  contains  also  nerve-fibers  continuous 
with  the  white-fibers,  but  generally  much  smaller.  These  form  half  the  bulk  of  the 
gray  substance  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  a  large  part  of  the  deeper  layer  of  the  gray 
matter  in  the  brain. — Leidy^s  Anatomy,  p.  507. 

%  What  this  force  is  we  do  not  know.  In  some  respects  it  is  like  electricity,  but, 
in  others,  differs  materially.  Its  velocity  is  about  thirty-three  metres  per  second. 
(Physics,  p.  183.) 


178 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

Fig.  50. 


fhe  Nervous  System.     A,  cerebrum ;  B,  cerebellum. 


THE  CEREBRUM.  179 

ganglia,  or  nervous  centers,  answer  to  the  stations 
along  a  telegraphic  line,  where  messages  are  received 
and  transmitted,  and  the  fibers  correspond  to  the 
wires  that  communicate  between  different  parts. 

The  Brain  is  the  seat  of  the  mind.  *  Its  average 
weight  is  about  fifty  ounces,  f  It  is  egg-shaped,  and, 
soft  and  yielding,  fills  closely  the  cavity  of  the  skull. 
It  reposes  securely  on  a  water-bed,  being  surrounded 
by  a  double  membrane  (arachnoid),  delicate  as  a 
spider's  web,  which  forms  a  closed  sac  filled,  like  the 
spaces  in  the  brain  itself,  with  a  liquid  resembling 
water.  Within  this,  and  closely  investing  the  brain, 
is  a  fine  tissue  (pia  mater),  with  a  mesh  of  blood- 
vessels which  dips  down  into  the  hollows,  and  bathes 
them  so  copiously  that  it  uses  one-fifth  of  the  entire 
circulation  of  the  body.  Around  the  whole  is  wrapped 
a  tough  membrane  (dura  mater),  which  lines  the  bony 
box  of  the  skull,  and  separates  the  various  parts  of 
the  organ  by  strong  partitions.  The  brain  consists 
of  two  parts — the  cerebrum,  and  the  cerebellum. 

The  Cerebrum  fills  the  front  and  upper  part  of  the 
skull,  and  comprises  about  seven-eighths  of  the  en- 
tire weight  of  the  brain.  As  animals  rise  in  the 
scale  of  life,  this  higher  part  makes  its  appearance. 


*  "  In  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  nervous  matter  in  the  body  it  is  larger  in  man 
than  in  any  of  the  lower  animals.  It  is  the  function  which  the  brain  performs  that 
distinguishes  man  from  all  other  animals,  and  it  is  by  the  action  of  his  brain  that  he 
becomes  a  conscious,  intelligent,  and  responsible  being.  The  brain  is  the  seat  of 
that  knowledge  which  we  express  when  we  say  I.  I  know  it,  I  feel  it,  I  saw  it,  are 
expressions  of  our  individual  consciousness,  the  seat  of  which  is  the  brain.  It  is 
when  the  brain  is  at  rest  in  sleep  that  there  is  least  consciousness.  The  brain  may 
be  put  under  the  influence  of  poisons,  such  as  alcohol  and  chloroform,  and  then  the 
body  is  without  consciousness.  Prom  these  and  other  facts  the  brain  is  regarded  as 
the  seat  of  consciousness"— Lankester. 

t  Cuvier's  brain  weighed,  63  ozs.;  Webster's,  53|  ozs.;  James  Fisk's,  58  ozs. ; 
RulofTs,  59  ozs. ;  an  idiot's,  19  ozs.  Serf  Table  in  Flint"1  s  Nervous  System. 


180  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

Fig.  51. 


Surface  of  the  Cerebrum. 

It  is  a  mass  of  white  fibers,  with  cells  of  gray  matter 
sprinkled  on  the  outside,  or  lodged  here  and  there  in 
ganglia.  It  is  so  curiously  wrinkled  and  folded  as 
strikingly  to  resemble  the  meat  of  an  English  wal- 
nut. This  structure  gives  a  large  surface  for  the 
gray  matter, — sometimes  as  much  as  670  square 
inches.  The  convolutions  are  not  noticeable  in  an 
infant,  but  increase  with  the  growth  of  the  mind, 
their  depth  and  intricacy  being  characteristic  of  high 
mental  power. 

The  cerebrum  is  divided  into  two  hemispheres, 
connected  beneath  by  fibers  of  white  matter.  Thus 
we  have  two  brains,*  as  well  as  two  hands  and  two 

*  This  doubleness  has  given  rise  to  some  curions  speculations.  In  the  case  of 
the  baud,  eye,  etc.,  we  know  that  the  sensation  is  made  more  sure.  Thus  we  can  see 


THE  CEREBRUM.  181 

eyes.  This  provides  us  with  a  surplus  of  brains,  as 
it  were,  which  can  be  drawn  upon  in  an  emergency. 
A  large  part  of  one  hemisphere  has  been  destroyed 

Fig.  69. 


Pigeon  from  which  the  Cerebrum  has  been  removed. 

without  particularly  injuring  the  mental  powers,* — 
just  as  a  person  has  been  blind  in  one  eye  for  a  long 
time  without  having  discovered  his  loss.  The  cere- 

with  one  eye,  but  not  so  well  as  with  both.  It  is  perhaps  the  same  with  the  brain. 
We  may  sometimes  carry  on  a  train  of  thought,  "  build  an  air-castle  "  with  one-half 
of  our  brain,  while  the  other  half  looks  on  and  watches  the  operation  ;  or,  may  read 
and  at  the  same  time  think  of  something  else.  So  in  delirium,  a  patient  often 
imagines  himself  two  persons,  thus  showing  a  want  of  harmony  between  the  two 
halves.— Draper's  Human  Physiology,  page  329. 

*  '  A  pointed  iron  bar,  three-and-a-half  feet  long  and  one  inch  and  a  quarter  in 
diameter,  was  driven  by  the  premature  blasting  of  a  rock  completely  through  the 
side  of  the  head  of  a  man  who  was  present.  It  entered  below  the  temple,  and  made 
its  exit  at  the  top  of  the  forehead,  just  about  the  middle  line.  The  man  was  at  first 
stunned,  and  lay  in  a  delirious,  semi-stupefied  state  for  about  three  weeks.  At  the 
end  of  sixteen  months,  however,  be  was  in  perfect  health,  with  the  wounds  healed 
and  with  the  mental  and  bodily  functions  unimpaired,  except  that  the  sight  was  lost 
in  the  eye  of  the  injured  side."— (Dalfon.)  It  is  noticeable,  however,  that  the  man 
became  changed  in  disposition,  fickle,  impatient  of  restraint,  and  profane,  which  he 
was  not  before.  He  died  epileptic,  probably  from  progressive  disease  of  the  brain, 
nearly  thirteen  years  after  the  injury.  The  tamping-iron  and  the  skull  are  pre- 
served in  the  Warren  Anatomical  Museum,  Boston. 


182  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

brum  is  the  center  of  intelligence  and  thought. 
Pigeons  from  which  it  is  removed  are  plunged  in 
profound  stupor,  and  are  inattentive  to  surrounding 
objects  ;  they  occasionally  open  their  eyes  with  a 
vacant  stare,  and  then  relapse  into  their  former 
apathy. 

The  Cerebellum  lies  below  the  cerebrum,  and  in 
the  back  part  of  the  head  (Fig.  50).  It  is  about  the 
size  of  a  small  fist.  Its  structure  is  similar  to  that 

Fig.SS. 


Pigeon  from  which  the  Cerebellum  has  been  removed. 

of  the  brain  proper,  but  instead  of  convolutions  it 
has  parallel  ridges,  which,  letting  the  gray  matter 
down  deeply  into  the  white  matter  within,  give  it  a 
peculiar  appearance,  called  the  arbor-vitce,  or  tree 
of  life  (Fig.  55).  This  part  of  the  brain  is  the  center 
for  the  control  of  the  voluntary  muscles.  Persons 
in  whom  it  is  injured  or  diseased  walk  as  if  intoxi- 
cated, and  cannot  perform  any  orderly  work. 


TRANSFER   OF  PAIN.  183 

Pigeons  from  which  it  is  removed  are  excited,  ner- 
vous, and  try  to  escape  with  uncertain,  sprawling 
movements. 

**  The  Spinal  Cord  occupies  the  cavity  of  the  back- 
bone. It  is  protected  by  the  same  membranes  as  the 
brain,  but,  unlike  it,  the  white  matter  is  on  the  out- 
side, and  the  gray  matter  is  within.  Deep  fissures 
separate  it  into  halves  (Fig.  50),  which  are,  however, 
joined  by  a  bridge  of  the  same  substance.  Just  as  it 
starts  from  the  brain,  there  is  an  expansion  called 
the  medulla  oblongata  (Fig.  55). 

The  Nerves  are  glistening,  silvery  threads,  com- 
posed, like  the  spinal  cord,  of  white  matter  without 
and  gray  within.  They  ramify  to  all  parts  of  the 
body.  Often  they  are  very  near  each  other,  yet  are 
perfectly  distinct,  each  conveying  its  own  impres- 
sion.* Those  which  carry  the  orders  of  the  mind  to 
the  different  organs  are  called  the  motory  nerves ; 
while  those  which  bring  back  impressions  which 
they  receive  are  styled  sensory  nerves.  If  the  sen- 
sory nerve  leading  to  any  part  be  cut,  all  sensation 
in  that  spot  will  be  lost,  while  motion  will  remain ; 
if  the  motory  nerve  be  cut,  all  motion  will  be  de- 
stroyed, while  sensation  will  exist  as  before. 

Transfer  of  Pain. — Strictly  speaking,  pain  is  not  in 
any  organ,  but  in  the  mind,  since  only  that  can  feel. 
When  any  nerve  brings  news  to  the  brain  of  an  in- 
jury, the  mind  refers  the  pain  to  the  end  of  the 
nerve.  A  familiar  illustration  is  seen  in  the  "funny 


*  Press  two  fingers  together,  and,  closing  the  eyes,  let  some  one  pass  the  point  of 
a  pin  lightly  from  one  to  the  other;  you  will  be  able  to  tell  which  is  touched,  yet  if 
the  nerves  came  in  contact  with  each  other  anywhere  in  their  long  route  to  the 
brain,  you  could  not  thus  distinguish. 


184  THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 

bone"  behind  the  elbow.  Here  the  nerve  (ulnar) 
gives  sensation  to  the  third  and  fourth  fingers,  in 
which,  if  this  bone  be  struck,  the  pain  will  seem  to 
be.  Long  after  a  limb  has  been  amputated,  pain 
will  be  felt  in  it,  as  if  it  still  formed  a  part  of  the 
body — any  injury  in  the  stump  being  referred  to  the 
point  to  which  the  nerve  formerly  led.  * 

The  nerves  are  divided  into  three  general  classes — 
the  spinal,  the  cranial,  and  the  sympathetic. 


A,  posterior  root  of  a  spinal  nerve ;  E,  ganglion;  B,  anterior  root;  D,  spinal  nerve . 
The  white  portions  of  the  figure  represent  the  white  fibers ;  and  the  dark,  tJie  gray. 

The  Spinal  Nerves,  of  which  there  are  thirty-one 
pairs,  issue  from  the  spinal  cord  through  apertures 
provided  for  them  in  the  backbone.  Each  nerve 
arises  by  two  roots  ;  the  anterior  is  the  motory,  and 
the  posterior  the  sensory  one.  The  posterior  alone 
connects  directly  with  the  gray  matter  of  the  cord, 

*  Only  about  five  per  cent,  of  those  who  suffer  amputation  lose  the  feeling  of  the 
part  taken  away.  There  is  something  tragical,  almost  ghastly,  in  the  idea  of  a  spirit 
limb  haunting  a  man  through  his  life,  and  betraying  him  in  unguarded  moments  into 
some  effort,  the  failure  of  which  suddenly  reminds  him  of  his  loss.  A  gallant  fellow, 
who  had  left  an  arm  at  Shiloh,  once,  when  riding,  attempted  to  use  his  lost  hand  to 
grasp  the  reins  while  with  the  other  he  struck  his  horse.  A  terrible  fall  was  the  re- 
sult of  his  mistake.  When  the  current  of  a  battery  is  applied  to  the  nerves  of  an 
arm-stump,  the  irritation  is  carried  to  the  brain,  and  referred  to  all  the  regions  of  the 
lost  limb.  On  one  occasion  a  man's  shoulder  was  thus  electrized  three  inches  above 
the  point  where  the  limb  was  cut  off.  For  two  years  he  had  ceased  to  be  conscious 
of  his  limb.  As  the  current  passed  through,  the  man.  ignorant  of  its  possible  effects, 
started  up,  crying,  "  Oh.  the  hand  !  the  hand  !  "  and  tried  to  seize  it  with  the  living 
grasp  of  the  sound  fingers.  No  resurrection  of  the  dead  could  have  been  more  start- 
ling—-Or.  M&hdlon  '"Phantom  Limfa"  in  UppincotVs  Magazine. 


THE  CKANIAL  NERVES.  185 

and  has  a  small  ganglion  of  gray  matter  of  its  own 
at  a  little  distance  from  its  origin.  These  roots  soon 
unite,  i.  e.,  are  bound  up  in  one  sheath,  though  they 
preserve  their  special  functions.  When  the  posterior 
root  of  a  nerve  is  cut,  the  animal  loses  the  power  of 
feeling,  and  when  the  anterior  root  is  cut,  that  of 
motion. 

r  The  Cranial  Nerves,  twelve  pairs  in  number, 
spring  from  the  lower  part  of  the  brain  and  the 
medulla  oblongata. 

Fig.  55. 


The  Brain  and  the  origin  of  the  twelve  pairs  of  Cranial  Nerves.  F,  E,  the  cere- 
brum ;  D,  the  cerebettum,  showing  the  arbor-vitas ;  G,  the  eye  •  H,  the  medulla  ob- 
longata; A,  the  spinal  cord  ;  C  and  B,  the  first  two  pairs  of  spinal  nerves. 


1.  The  olfactory,  or  first  pair  of  nerves,  ramify  through  the  nostrils, 
and  are  the,  nerves  of  smell. 

2.  The  optic,  or  second  pair  of  nerves,  pass  to  the  eyeballs,  and  are 
the  nerves  of  vision, 


186 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


3,  4,  6.  The  motores  oculi  (eye-movers)  are  three  pairs  of  nerves  used 
to  move  the  eyes, 

5.  The  tri-fadal,  or  fifth  pair  of  nerves,  divide  each  into  three 
branches — hence  the  name  :  the  first  to  the  upper  part  of  the  face, 
eyes,  and  nose;  the  second  to  the  upper  jaw  and  teeth  ;  the  third 
to  the  lower  jaw  and  the  mouth,  where  it  forms  the  nerve  of 
taste.  These  nerves  are  implicated  when  we  have  the  toothache  or 
neuralgia. 

7.  The  facial,  or  seventh  pair  of  nerves,  are  distributed  over  the 
face,  and  give  to  it  expression.* 


Qfij 

j    L     ^^^s,  -•' "'  "^ 


Spinal  Nerves,  Sympathetic  Cord,  and  the  Net-work  of  Sympathetic  Nerves  around 
the  Internal  Organs.  K,  aorta;  A,  oesophagus :  B,  diaphragm ;  0,  stomach. 

*  "  If  it  is  palsied,  on  one  side  there  will  be  a  blank,  while  the  other  side  will 
laugh  or  cry,  and  the  whole  face  will  look  funny  indeed.  There  were  some  cruel 
people  in  the  middle  a<res  who  used  to  cut  the  nerve  and  deform  children's  faces  in 
this  way,  for  the  purpose  of  making  money  of  them  at  shows.  When  this  nerve  was 
wrongly  supposed  to  be  the  seat  of  neuralgia,  or  tic-douloureux,  it  was  often  cut  by 
surgeons.  The  patient  Buffered  many  dangers,  and  no  relief  of  pain  was  gained."— 
Mapother. 


THE  CRANIAL  NERVES.  187 

8.  The  auditory,  or  eiglitli  pair  of  nerves,  go  to  the  ears,  and  are  the 
nerves  of  hearing. 

9.  The  glos-so-pMryu'-ge-a!,  or  ninth  pair  of  nerves,  are  distributed 
over  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  pharynx,  tonsils,  etc. 

10.  The  pneu-mo-gas' -trie,  or  tenth  pair  of  nerves,  preside  over  the 
larynx,  lungs,  liver,  stomach,  and  one  branch  extends  to  the  heart. 
This  is  the  only  nerve  which  goes  so  far  from  the  head. 

11.  The  accessory,  or  eleventh  pair  of  nerves,  rise  from*  the  spinal 
cord,  run  up  to  the  medulla  oblongata,  and  thence  leave  the  skull  at 
the  same  opening  with  the  ninth  and  tenth  pairs.     They  regulate  the 
vocal  movements  of  the  larynx. 

12.  The  hyp-o-glos'-sal,  or  twelfth  pair  of  nerves,  give  motion  to  the 
tongue. 

—-7 

The  Sympathetic  System  contains  the  nerves  of 
organic  life.  It  consists  of  a  double  chain  of  gan- 
glia on  either  side  of  the  backbone,  extending  into 
the  chest  and  abdomen.  From  these,  delicate 
nerves,  generally  soft  and  of  a  grayish  color,  run  to 
the  organs  on  which  life  depends — the  heart,  lungs, 
stomach,  etc.— to  the  blood-vessels,  and  to  the  spinal 
and  cranial  nerves  over  the  body.  Thus  the  entire 
system  is  bound  together  with  cords  of  sympathy,  so 
that,  "  if  one  member  suffers,  all  the  members  suffer 
with  it." 

Here  lies  the  secret  of  the  control  exercised  by  the 
brain  over  all  the  vital  operations.  Every  organ 
responds  to  its  changing  moods,  especially  those  of 
respiration,  circulation,  digestion,  and  secretion,— 
processes  intimately  linked  with  this  system,  and 
controlled  by  it. 

Crossing  of  Cords. — Each  half  of  the  body  is  pre- 
sided over,  not  by  its  own  half  of  the  brain,  but  that 
of  the  opposite  side.  The  motory  nerves,  as  they 
descend  from  the  brain,  in  the  medulla  oblongata, 


188  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

cross  each  other  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  spinal 
cord.  So  the  motor-nerves  of  the  right  side  of  the 
body  are  connected  with  the  left  side  of  the  brain, 
and  vice  versa.  Thus  a  derangement  in  one  half  of 
„  the  brain  may  paralyze  the  opposite  half  of  the  body. 
The  nerves  going  to  the  face  do  not  thus  cross,  and 
therefore  the  face  may  be  motionless  on  one  side, 
and  the  limbs  on  the  other.  Each  of  the  sensory 
fibers  of  the  spinal  nerves  crosses  over  to  the 
opposite  side  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  so  ascends  to 
the  brain  :  an  injury  to  the  spinal  cord  may,  there- 
fore, cause  a  loss  of  motion  in  one  leg  and  of  feeling 
in  the  other. 

Reflex  Action. — Since  the  gray  matter  generates 
the  nervous  force,  a  ganglion  is  capable  of  receiving 
an  impression,  and  of  sending  back  or  reflecting  it 
so  as  to  excite  the  muscles  to  action.  This  is  done 
without  the  consciousness  of  the  mind.:::  Thus  we 
wink  involuntarily  at  a  flash  of  light  or  a  threatened 
blow,  f  We  start  at  a  sudden  sound.  We  jump  back 

*  Instances  of  an  nnconscions  working  of  the  mind  are  abundant.  Abercrombte, 
in  his  Intellectual  Powers,  gives  the  following : 

"A  lawyer  had  been  excessively  perplexed  about  a  rery  complicated  question. 
An  opinion  was  required  from  him,  but  the  question  was  one  of  such  difficulty  that 
lie  felt  very  uncertain  how  he  should  render  it.  The  decision  had  to  be  given  at  a 
certain  time,  and  he  awoke  in  the  morning  of  that  clay  with  a  feeling  of  great  dis- 
tress. He  said  to  his  wife,  1 1  had  a  dream,  and  the  whoie  thing  was  clearly 
arranged  before  my  mind,  and  I  would  giTe  anything  to  recover  the  train  of 
thought.'  H!«  wife  said  to  him,  "  Go  and  look  on  your  table.*  She  had  seen  him  get 
np  in  the  night  snd  go  to  his  table  and  eit  down  and  write.  He  did  so.  and  found 
there  the  opinion  which  ho  had  been  most  earnestly  endeavoring  to  recover,  lying  in 
his  own  handwriting.  There  was  no  doubt  about  it  whatever." 

In  this  case  the  action  of  the  brain  was  clearly  automatic,  i.  e..  reflex.  The  lawyer 
hnd  worried  his  brain  by  his  anxiety,  nnd  thus  prevented  his  mind  from  doing  it.-» 
bcpt.  But  it  had  received  an  impulse  in  a  certain  direction,  and  when  left  to  itself, 
worked  out  the  result.  (See  Appendix  for  other  illustrations.) 

t  "  A  very  eminent  chemist  a  fow  years  ago  was  making  an  experiment  upon 
pome  extremely  explosive  compound  which  he  had  discovered.  He  had  a  small 
qmntity  of  this  compound  in  a  bottle,  and  was  holding  it  up  to  the  light,  looking  at 
it  intently  ;  and  whether  it  was  a  shake  of  the  bottle  or  the  warmth  of  his  hand,  I  do 


USES  OF  REFLEX  ACTION.  189 

from  a  precipice  before  the  mind  has  time  to  reason 
upon  the  danger.  The  spinal  cord  conducts  certain 
impressions  to  the  brain,  but  responds  to  others 
without  troubling  that  organ.*  The  medulla  ob- 
longata  carries  on  the  process  of  respiration.  The 
great  sympathetic  system  binds  together  all  the 
organs  of  the  body. 

Uses  of  Reflex  Action. — We  breathe  eighteen 
times  .every  minute  ;  we  stand  erect  without  a  con- 
sciousness of  effort  ;f  we  walk,  eat,  digest,  and  at 
the  same  time  carry  on  a  train  of  thought.  Our 
brain  is  thus  emancipated  from  the  petty  detail  of 
life.  If  we  were  obliged  to  attend  to  every  breath, 
every  pulsation  of  the  heart,  every  wink  of  the  eye, 
our  time  would  be  wasted  in  keeping  alive.  Mere 
standing  would  require  our  entire  attention. 

not  know,  but  it  exploded  in  his  hand,  and  the  bottle  was  shivered  into  a  million  of 
minute  fragments,  which  were  driven  in  every  direction.  His  first  impression  was, 
that  they  had  penetrated  his  eyes,  but  to  his  intense  relief  he  found  presently  that 
they  had  only  struck  the  outside  of  his  eyelids.  You  may  conceive  how  infinitesi- 
mally  short  the  interval  was  between  the  explosion  of  the  bottles  and  the  particles 
reaching  his  eyes  ;  and  yet  in  that  interval  the  impression  had  been  made  upon  his 
eizht,  the  mandate  of  the  reflex  action,  so  to  speak,  had  gone  forth,  the  muscles  of 
his  eyelids  had  been  called  into  action,  and  he  had  closed  his  eyelids  before  the  par- 
ticles h  id  reached  them,  and  in  this  manner  his  eyes  were  saved.  You  see  what  a 
wonderful  proof  this  is  of  the  way  in  which  the  automatic  action  of  our  nervous 
apparatus  enters  into  the  sustenance  of  our  lives,  and  the  protection  of  our  most 
important  organs  from  injury."— #/'.  Carpenter. 

*  There  is  a  story  told  of  a  man.  who,  having  injured  his  spinal  cord,  had  lost 
feeling  and  motion  in  his  lower  extremities.  Dr.  John  Hunter  experimented  upon 
him.  Tickling  his  feet,  he  asked  him  if  he  felt  it;  the  man,  rointing  to  his  limbs 
which  were  kicking  vigorously  about,  answered.  ''  No,  but  you  see  my  legs  do." 
Illustrations  of  this  independent  action  of  the  spinal  cord  are  common  in  animals 
A  headless  wasp  will  ply  its  sting  energetically.  A  fowl,  after  its  head  is  cut  off, 
will  flap  its  wings  and  jump  r.bout  as  if  in  pain,  although  of  course  all  sensation 
has  ceased.  "A  water  beetle,  having  had  its  head  removed,  remained  motionless  as 
long  as  it  rested  on  a  dry  surface,  but  when  cast  into  water,  it  executed  the  usual 
swimming  motions  with  groat  energy  and  rapidity,  striking  nil  its  comra  es  to  one 
side  by  its  violence,  and  persii-ting  in  these  for  more  than  half  an  hour." 

|  In  this  way  we  account  for  the  perilous  feats  performed  by  the  somnambulist. 
He  is  not  conscious,  as  his  operations  are  not  directed  by  the  cerebrum,  but  by  the 
other  nervous  centers. 


190  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

Besides,  an  act  which  at  first  demands  all  our 
thought  soon  requires  less,  and  at  last  becomes 
mechanical,*  as  we  say,  i.  e.,  reflex.  Thus  we  play 
a  familiar  tune  upon  an  instrument  and  carry  on  a 
conversation  at  the  same  time.  All  the  possibilities 
of  an  education  and  the  power  of  forming  habits  are 
based  upon  this  principle.  No  act  we  perform  ends 
with  itself.  It  leaves  behind  it  in  the  nervous  cen- 
ters a  tendency  to  do  the  same  thing  again.  Our 
physical  being  thus  conspires  to  fix  upon  us  the 
habits  of  a  good  or  an  evil  life.  Our  very  thoughts 
are  written  in  our  muscles,  so  that  the  expression  of 
our  face  and  even  our  features  grow  into  harmony 
with  the  life  we  live. 

Brain  Exercise. — The  nervous  system  demands  its 
life  and  activity.  The  mind  grows  by  what  it  feeds 
on.  One  who  reads  mainly  light  literature,  who 
lolls  on  the  sofa  or  worries  through  the  platitudes  of 
an  idle  or  fashionable  life,  decays  mentally ;  his 
system  loses  tone,  and  physical  weakness  follows 
mental  poverty.  On  the  other  hand,  an  excessive 
use  of  the  mind  withdraws  force  from  the  body, 
whose  weakness,  reacting  on  the  brain,  produces 
gradual  decay  and  serious  diseases. 

The  brain  grows  by  the  growth  of  the  body.  The 
body  grows  through  good  food,  fresh  air,  and  work 


*  •  As  every  ore  knows,"  Fays  Huxley,  "  it  takes  a  soldier  a  long  time  to  learn 
Ins  drill— for  instance,  to  put  himself  into  the  attitude  of  'attention'  at  the  instant 
the  word  of  command  is  heard.  But  after  a  time,  the  sound  of  the  word  gives  ri?c 
to  the  act,  whether  the  soldier  be  thinking  of  it  or  not.  There  is  a  story,  which  is 
credible  enough,  though  it  may  not  be  true,  of  a  practical  joker,  who,  seeing  a  dis- 
charged veteran  carrying  home  his  dinner,  suddenly  called  out  'Attention^  where- 
upon the  man  instantly  brought  his  Lands  down,  and  lost  his  mutton  and  potatoes 
in  i  he  gutter.  The  drill  had  been  thorough,  and  its  effects  had  become  embodied  in 
the  man's  nervous  structure.'1 


SUNLIGHT.  191 

and  rest  in  suitable  proportion.  For  the  full  devel- 
opment and  perfect  use  of  a  strong  mind,  a  strong 
body  is  essential.  Hence,  in  seeking  to  expand  and 
store  the  intellect,  we  should  be  equally  thoughtful 
of  the  growth  and  health  of  the  body. 

Sleep*  is  as  essential  as  food.  During  the  day, 
the  process  of  tearing  down  goes  on ;  during  the 
night,  the  work  of  building  up  should  make  good 
the  loss.  In  youth  more  sleep  is  needed  than  in  old 
age,  when  nature  makes  few  permanent  repairs,  and 
is  content  with  temporary  expedients.  The  number 
of  hours  required  for  sleep  must  be  decided  by  each 
person.  Napoleon  took  only  five  hours,  but  most 
people  need  from  six  to  eight  hours, — brain-workers 
even  more.  In  general,  one  should  sleep  until  ho 
naturally  wakes.  If  one's  rest  be  broken,  it  should 
be  made  up  as  soon  as  possible. 

Sunlight. — The  influence  of  the  sun's  rays  upon  the 
nervous  system  is  very  marked,  f  It  is  said  also  to 

*  Sleep  procured  by  medicine  is  rarely  as  beneficial  as  that  secured  naturally. 
The  disturbance  to  the  nervous  system  is  often  sufficient  to  counterbalance  all  the 
good  results.  The  habit  of  seeking  sleep  in  this  way,  without  the  advice  of  a  phy- 
sician, is  to  be  most  earnestly  deprecated.  The  dose  must  be  constantly  increased 
to  produce  the  effect,  and  thus  great  injury  may  be  caused.  Often,  too,  where 
laudanum  or  morphine  is  used,  the  person  unconsciously  comes  into  a  terrible  and 
fatal  bondage.  (See  p.  203.)  Especially  should  infants  never  be  dosed  with  cordials, 
as  is  a  common  family  practice.  The  damage  done  to  helpless  childhood  by  the 
ignorant  and  reckless  use  of  soothing  syrups  is  frightful  to  contemplate.  AD  the 
ordinary  sleeping-draughts  have  life-destroying  properties,  as  is  proved  by  the  fatal 
effects  of  an  overdose.  At  the  best,  they  paralyze  the  nerve  centers,  disorder  the 
digestion,  and  poison  the  blood.  Their  promiscuous  use  is  therefore  full  of  danger. 

t  "  The  necessity  of  light  for  young  children  is  not  half-appreciated.  Many  of 
their  diseases,  and  nearly  all  the  cadaverous  looks  of  those  brought  up  in  great 
cities,  are  ascribable  to  the  deficiency  of  light  and  air.  When  we  see  the  glass-room 
of  the  photographers  in  every  street,  in  the  topmost  story,  we  grudge  them  their 
application  to  what  is  often  a  mere  personal  vanity.  Why  should  not  a  nursery  be 
constructed  in  the  same  manner?  If  parents  knew  the  value  of  light  to  the  skin, 
especially  to  children  of  a  scrofulous  tendency,  we  should  have  plenty  of  these  glass- 
house nurseries,  where  children  might  run  about  in  a  proper  temperatnre,  frce.from 
much  of  that  clothing  which  at  present  seals  up  the  skin— that  great  supplementary 


192  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

have  the  effect  of  developing  red  disks  in  the  blood. 
All  vigor  and  activity  come  from  the  sun.  Vege- 
tables grown  in  subdued  light  have  a  bleached  and 
faded  look.  An  infant  kept  in  absolute  darkness 
would  grow  into  a  shapeless  idiot.  That  room  is  the 
healthiest  to  which  the  sun  has  the  freest  access. 
Epidemics  frequently  attack  the  inhabitants  of  the 
shady  side  of  a  street,  and  totally  exempt  those  on 
the  sunny  side.  If,  on  a  slight  indisposition,  we 
should  go  out  into  the  open  air  and  bright  sunlight, 
instead  of  shutting  ourselves  up  in  a  close,  dark 
chamber,  we  might  often  avoid  a  serious  illness. 
The  sun-bath  is  doubtless  a  most  efficient  remedy 
for  many  diseases.  Our  window  blinds  and  curtains 
should  be  thrown  back  and  open,  and  we  should  let 
the  blessed  air  and  sun  stream  in  to  invigorate  and 
cheer.  No  house  buried  in  shade,  and  no  room  with 
darkened  windows,  is  fit  for  human  habitation.  In 
damp  and  darkness,  lies  in  wait  almost  every  dis- 
ease to  which  flesh  is  heir.  The  sun  is  their  only 
successful  foe. 

"Wonders  of  the  Brain. — After  having  seen  the 
beautiful  contrivances  and  the  exquisite  delicacy  of 
the  lower  organs,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  when 
we  come  to  the  brain  we  should  find  the  most  elabo- 
rate machinery.  How  surprising,  then,  it  is  to  have 
revealed  to  us  only  cells  and  fibers !  The  brain  is 
the  least  solid  and  most  unsubstantial  looking  organ 
in  the  body.  Eighty  per  cent,  of  water,  seven  of 
albumen,  some  fat,  and  a  few  minor  substances 


sunlight  and  oxygen.    They  would  save  many  a  weakly  child  who 
now  perishes  from  lack  of  these  necessaries  of  infant  life."— Dr.  Winter. 


ALCOHOL.  193 

constitute  tho  instrument  which  rules  the  world. 
Strangest  of  all,  the  brain,  which  is  the  seat  of 
sensation,  is  itself  without  sensation.  Every  nerve, 
every  part  of  the  spinal  cord,  is  keenly  alive  to  the 
slightest  touch,  yet  "the  brain  may  be  cut,  burned, 
or  electrified  without  producing  pain." 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS   AND   NARCOTICS. 

ALCOHOL  (Continued  from  p.  172). 

Effect  upon  the  Nervous  System. — In  the  progres- 
sive influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  nervous  system, 
there  are,  according  to  the  researches  of  Dr.  Rich- 
ardson, four  successive  stages. 

1.  The  Stage  of  Excitement. *— The  first  effect  of  alcohol,  as 
we  have  already  described  on  page  180,  is  to  paralyze  the  nerves  that 
lead  to  the  extreme  and  minute  blood-vessels,  and  so  regulate  the 
passage  of  the  blood  through  the  capillary  system.  The  vital  force, 
thus  drawn  into  the  nervous  centers,  drives  the  machinery  of  life 
with  tremendous  energy.  The  heart  jumps  like  the  main-spring 
of  a  watch,  when  the  resistance  of  fie  wheels  is  removed.  The 
blood  surges  through  the  body  with  increased  force.  Every  capil- 
lary tube  in  the  system  is  swollen  and  flushed,  like  the  reddened  nose 
and  cheek. 

*  "The  pupil  should  be  careful  to  note  here  that  alcohol  does  not  act  upon  the 
heart  directly,  and  cause  it  to  contract  with  more  force.  The  idea  that  alcohol 
gives  energy  and  activity  to  the  muscles  is  entirely  false.  It  really,  as  we  have  seen 
(p.  169),  weakens  muscular  contraction.  The  enfeeblement  begins  in  the  first  stage 
and  continues  in  the  other  stages  with  increased  effect.  The  heart  beats  quickly 
merely  because  the  resistance  of  the  minute  controlling  vessels  is  taken  off,  and  it 
works  without  being  uncfer  proper  regulation.  What  is  called  a  stimulation  or 
excitement  is,  in  absolute  fact,  a  relaxation,  a  partial  paralysis  of  one  of  the  most 
important  mechanisms  in  the  animal  body.  Alcohol  should  be  ranked  among  the 
narcotics."— Richardson. 


194  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

In  all  tliis  there  is  exhilaration,  but  no  nourishment ;  there  is  anima- 
tion, but  no  permanent  power  conferred  on  brain  or  muscle.  Alcohol 
may  cheer  for  the  moment.  It  may  set  the  sluggish  blood  in  motion, 
start  the  flaw  of  thought,  and  excite  a  temporary  gayety.  "  It  may  eii. 
able  a  wearied  or  feeble  organism  to  do  brisk  work  for  a  short  time.  It 
may  make  the  brain  briefly  brilliant.  It  may  excite  muscle  to  quick 
action,  but  it  does  nothing  at  its  own  cost,  fills  up  nothing  it  has  de- 
stroyed, and  itself  leads  to  destruction."  Even  the  mental  activity  it 
has  excited  is  an  unsafe  state  of  mind,  for  that  just  poise  of  the  fac- 
ulties so  essential  to  good  judgment  is  disturbed  by  the  presence  of  the 
intruder.  Johnson  well  remarked,  "  Wine  improves  conversation  by 
taking  the  edge  off  the  understanding." 

2.  The  Stage  of  Muscular  Weakness. — If  the  action  of  the 
alcohol  be  still   continued,  the  spinal  cord  is  next  affected  by  this 
powerful  narcotic.     The  control  of  some  of  the  muscles  is  lost.     Those 
of  the  lower  lip  usually  fail  first,  then  those  of  the  lower  limbs,  and  the 
staggering,  uncertain    steps  betray  the  result.      The  muscles  them- 
selves, also,  become  feebler  as  the  power  of  contraction  diminishes. 
The  temperature,  which,  for  a  time,  was  slightly  increased,  soon  begins 
to  fall  as  the  heat  is  radiated  ;  the  body  is  cooled,  and  the  well-known 
'*  alcoholic  chill "  is  felt. 

3.  The  Stage  of  Mental  Weakness.  —  The  cerebrum  is  now 
implicated.    The  ideal  and  emotional  faculties  are  quickened,  while  tho 
will  is  weakened.    The  center  of  thought  being  overpowered,  the  mind 
is  a  chaos.    Ideas  flock  in  thick  and  fast.    The  tongue  is  loosened.    The 
judgment  loses  its  hold  on  the  acts.    The  reason  giving  way,  the  animal 
instincts  generally  assume  the  mastery  of  the  man.     The  hidden  nature 
comes  to  the  surface.    All  the  gloss  of  education  and  social  restraint 
falls  off,  and  the  lower  nature   stands  revealed.     The  coward  shows 
himself  more  craven,  the  braggart  more  boastful,  the  bold  more  daring, 
and  the  cruel  more  brutal.    The  inebriate  is  liable  to  become  the  victim 
of  any  outrage  that  the  slightest  provocation  may  suggest. 

4  The  Stage  of  Unconsciousness.  —  At  last,  prostration 
ensues,  and  the  wild,  mad  revel  of  the  drunkard  ends  with  utter  sense- 
lessness. In  common  speech,  the  man  is  "  dead  drunk."  Brain  and 
spinal  cord  are  lx>t!i  benumbed.  Fortunately,  the  two  nervous  centers 
which  supply  the  heart  and  the  diaphragm  are  the  slowest  to  be 
influenced.  So,  even  in  this  final  stage,  the  breathing  and  the  circula- 


ALCOHOL.  195 

tion  still  go  on,  though  the  other  organs  have  stopped.     Were  it  not 
for  this,  every  person  thoroughly  intoxicated  would  die.* 

Effect  upon  the  Brain. — Alcohol  seems  to  have  a 
special  affinity  for  the  brain.  This  organ  absorbs 
more  than  any  other,  and  its  delicate  structure  is 
correspondingly  affected.  The  "Vascular  enlarge- 
ment" here  reaches  its  height.  The  tiny  vessels 
become  clogged  with  blood  that  is  unfitted  to  nour- 
ish, because  loaded  with  carbonic  acid,  and  deprived 
of  the  usual  quantity  of  the  life-giving  oxygen. — 
(Hinton.)  The  brain  is,  in  the  language  of  the 
physiologist,  malfunctioned.  The  mind  but  slowly 
rallies  from  the  stupor  of  the  fourth  stage,  and  a 
sense  of  dullness  and  depression  remains  to  show 
with  what  difficulty  the  fatigued  organ  recovers  its 
normal  condition.  So  marked  is  the  effect  of  the 
narcotic  poison  that  some  authorities  hold  that  "a 
once  thoroughly-intoxicated  brain  never  fully  be- 
comes what  it  was  before." 

In  time,  the  free  use  of  liquor  hardens  and  thickens 
the  membrane  enveloping  the  nervous  matter ;  the 
nerve-corpuscles  undergo  a  "  Fatty  degeneration"; 
the  blood-vessels  lose  their  elasticity  ;  and  the  vital 
fluid,  flowing  less  freely  through  the  obstructed 
channels,  fails  to  afford  the  old-time  nourishment. 

*  Cold  has  a  wonderful  influence  in  hastening  this  stage,  so  that  a  person,  pre- 
viously only  in  the  first  stage  of  excitement,  on  going  outdoors  on  a  winter  night, 
may  rapidly  sink  into  a  lethargy  (become  comatose),  fall,  and  die.  He  is  then  com- 
monly said  to  have  perished  with  cold.  The  signs  of  this  coma  are  of  great  prac- 
tical importance,  since  so  many  persons  die  in  police  stations  and  elsewhere  who  are 
really  comatose,  when  they  are  supposed  to  be  only  sound  asleep.  The  pulse  is  slow, 
and  almost  imperceptible.  The  face  is  pale,  and  the  skin  cold.  "  If  the  arm  be 
pinched  it  is  not  moved;  if  the  eyeballs  are  touched,  the  lids  will  not  sink."  The 
respiration  becomes  slower  and  slower,  and,  if  the  person  dies,  it  is  because  liquid 
collects  in  the  bronchial  tubes,  and  stops  the  passage  of  the  air.  The  man  then 
actually  drowns  in  his  own  secretions. 


190  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

The  consequent  deterioration  of  the  nervous  sub- 
stance— the  organ  of  thought — shows  itself  in  the 
weakened  mind  *  that  we  so  often  notice  in  a  person 
accustomed  to  drink,  and  at  last  lays  the  foundation 
of  various  nervous  disorders  —  epilepsy,  paralysis, 
and  insanity,  f  The  law  of  heredity  asserts  itself 
here  again,  and  the  inebriate's  children  often  inherit 
the  disease  which  he  has  escaped. 

Chief  among  the  consequences  of  this  "perverted 
and  imperfect  nutrition  of  the  brain  "  is  that  inter- 
mediate state  between  intoxication  and  insanity, 
well  known  as  Delirium  Tremens.  "It  is  charac- 
terized by  a  low,  restless  activity  of  the  cerebrum, 
manifesting  itself  in  muttering  delirium,  with  occa- 
sional paroxysms  of  greater  violence.  The  victim 
almost  always  apprehends  some  direful  calamity  ; 
he  imagines  his  bed  to  be  covered  with  loathsome 
reptiles  ;  he  sees  the  walls  of  his  apartment  crowded 
with  foul  specters  ;  and  he  imagines  his  friends  and 
attendants  to  be  fiends  come  to  drag  him  down  to  a 
fiery  abyss  beneath." — Carpenter. 

Influence  upon  the  Mental  and  Moral  Powers. — 
So  intimate  is  the  relation  between  the  body  and  the 
mind  that  an  injury  to  one  harms  the  other.  The 
effect  of  alcoholized  blood  is  to  weaken  the  will. 
The  one  habitually  under  its  influence  often  shocks 
us  by  his  indecision  and  breaking  his  promise  to 
reform.  The  truth  is,  he  has  lost,  in  a  measure,  his 
power  of  self-control.  At  last,  he  becomes  physically 

*  "The  habitual  use  of  fermented  liquors,  even  to  an  extent  far  short  of  what  is 
necessary  to  produce  intoxication,  injures  the  body,  and  diminishes  the  mental 
power."— Sir  Henry  Thompson. 

t  Capper,  the  great  statistician  of  Berlin,  says  :  "So  fur  as  that  city  is  concerned, 
one-third  of  the  insane  coming  from  the  poorer  classes,  were  made  so  by  spirit- 
drinking." 


ALCOHOL.  197 

unable  to  resist  the  craving  demand  of  his  morbid 
appetite. 

Other  faculties  share  in  this  mental  wreck.  The 
intellectual  vision  becomes  less  penetrating,  the  deci- 
sions of  the  mind  less  reliable,  and  the  grasp  of 
thought  less  vigorous.  The  logic  grows  muddy.  A 
thriftless,  reckless  feeling  is  developed.  Ere  long, 
self-respect  is  lost,  and  then  ambition  ceases  to 
allure,  and  the  high  spirit  sinks. 

Along  with  this  mental  deterioration  comes  also  a 
failure  of  the  moral  sense.  The  fine  fiber  of  char- 
acter undergoes  a  "degeneration."  as  certain  as  that 
of  the  muscles  themselves.  Broken  promises  tell  of 
a  lowered  standard  of  veracity,  and  a  dulled  sense  of 
honor,  quite  as  much  as  of  an  impaired  will.  Under 
the  subtle  influence  of  the  ever-present  poison,  signs 
of  spiritual  weakness  multiply  fast.  Conscience  is 
lulled  to  rest.  Reason  is  enfeebled.  Customary 
restraints  are  easily  thrown  off.  The  sensibilities 
are  blunted.  There  is  less  ability  to  appreciate  nice 
shades  of  right  and  wrong.  Great  moral  principles 
and  motives  lose  their  power  to  influence.  The 
judgment  fools  with  duty.  The  future  no  longer 
reaches  back  its  hand  to  guide  the  present.  The 
better  nature  has  lost  its  supremacy. 

The  wretched  victim  of  appetite  will  now  gratify 
his  tyrannical  passion  for  drink  at  any  expense  of 
deceit  or  crime.  He  becomes  the  blind  instrument 
of  his  insane  impulses,  and  commits  acts  from  which 
he  would  once  have  shrunk  with  horror.  *  Sometimes 

*  Richardson  sums  up  the  various  diseases  caused  by  alcohol,  as  follows :  "  (a). 
Diseases  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system,  indicated  by  such  names  as  apoplexy, 
epilepsy,  paralysis,  vertigo,  softening  of  the  brain,  delirium  tremens,  dipsomania  or 
inordinate  craving  for  drink,  loss  of  memory,  and  that  general  failure  of  the  mental 


198  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

he  even  takes  a  malignant  pleasure  in  injuring  those 
whom  Nature  has  ordained  he  should  protect.* 


• 


II.    TOBACCO. 


The  Constituents  of  Tobacco  Smoke  are  numer- 
ous, but  the  prominent  ones  are  carbonic  acid,  car- 
bonic oxide,  and  ammonia  gases  ;  carbon,  or  soot ;  and 
nicotine.  The  proportion  of  these  substances  varies 
with  different  kinds  of  tobacco,  the  pipe  used,  and  the 
rapidity  of  the  combustion.  Carbonic  acid  tends  to 
produce  sleepiness  and  headache.  Carbonic  oxide, 
in  addition,  causes  a  tremulous  movement  of  the 
muscles,  and  so  of  the  heart.  Ammonia  bites  the 
tongue  of  the  smoker,  excites  the  salivary  glands, 
and  causes  dryness  of  the  mouth  and  throat.  Nico- 
tine is  a  powerful  poison.  The  amount  contained  in 
one  or  two  strong  cigars,  if  thrown  directly  into  the 

power,  called  dementia,  (b).  Diseases  of  the  lungs :  one  form  of  consumption,  con- 
gestion, and  subsequent  bronchitis,  (c).  Diseases  of  the  heart:  irregular  beat, 
feebleness  of  the  muscular  walls,  dilatation,  disease  of  the  valves,  (d).  Diseases  of 
the  blood :  scurvy,  excess  of  water  or  dropsy,  separation  of  fibrin,  (e).  Diseases  of 
the  stomach  :  feebleness  of  the  stomach,  indigestion,  flatulency,  irritation,  and 
sometimes  inflammation.  (/).  Diseases  of  the  bowels:  relaxation  or  purging,  irri- 
tation. (<7).  Diseases  of  the  liver:  congestion,  hardening  and  shrinking,  cirrhosis. 
(A).  Disease?  of  the  kidneys:  change  of  structure  into  fatty  or  waxy-likc  condition 
and  other  results  leading  to  dropsy,  or  sometimes  to  fatal  sleep.  (£).  Diseases  of  the 
muscles :  fatty  change  in  the  muscle?,  by  which  they  lose  their  power  for  proper 
active  contraction,  (ft.  Diseases  of  the  membranes  of  the  body:  thickening  and 
loss  of  elasticity,  by  which  the  parts  wrapped  up  in  the  membrane  are  impaired  f&r 
use,  and  premature  decay  is  induced." 

*  It  ha*  been  argued  that  a  man  should  not  be  punished  for  any  crime  he  may  com 
mit  durinor  intoxication,  but  rather  for  knowingly  giving  up  the  reins  of  reason  and 
conscience,  and  thus  subjecting  himself  to  the  rule  of  his  evil  passions.  Voluntarily 
to  stimulate  the  mind  and  put  it  into  a  condition  where  it  may  drive  one  to  ruin,  is 
very  like  the  act  of  an  engineer  who  should  get  up  steam  in  his  engine,  and  then, 
having  opened  the  valves,  desert  his  post,  and  let  the  monster  go  thundering  down 
the  track  to  sure  destruction.  Certain  persons  are  thrown  into  the  stage  of  mental 
weakness  by  a  single  glass  of  liquor.  How  can  they  be  excused  when  the  fact  ot 
their  peculiar  liability  lends  additional  force  to  the  argument  of  abstemiousness,  and 
they  know  that  their  only  safety  lies  in  total  abstinence  1— Carpenter's  Physiology. 


TOBACCO.  199 

blood,  would  cause  death.  Nicotine  itself  is  com  • 
plex,  yielding  a  volatile  substance  that  gives  the 
odor  to  the  breath  and  clothing ;  and  also  a  bitter 
extract  which  produces  the  sickening  taste  of  an 
old  pipe.  In  smoking,  some  of  the  nicotine  is 
decomposed,  forming  pyridine,  picoline,  and  other 
poisonous  alkaloids.* 

Physiological  Effects. — The  poison  of  tobacco,  set 
free  by  the  process  either  of  chewing  or  smoking, 
when  for  the  first  time  it  is  swept  through  the 
system  by  the  blood,  powerfully  affects  the  body. 
Nausea  is  felt,  and  the  stomach  seeks  to  throw  off 
the  offending  substance.  The  brain  is  inflamed, 
and  headache  follows.  The  motor-nerves  becoming 
irritated,  giddiness  ensues.  Thus  Nature  earnestly 
protests  against  the  formation  of  this  habit.  But, 
after  repeated  trials,  the  system  adjusts  itself  to 
the  new  conditions.  A  "tolerance"  of  the  poison 
is  finally  established,  and  smoking  causes  none  of 
the  former  symptoms.  Such  powerful  substances 
cannot,  however,  be  constantly  inhaled  without 
producing  marked  changes.  The  three  great  elim- 
inating organs — the  lungs,  the  skin,  and  the  kid- 
neys— throw  off  a  large  part  of  the  products,  but 
much  remains  in  the  system.  When  the  presence 
of  the  poison  is  constant,  and  especially  when  the 
smoking  or  chewing  is  excessive,  the  disturbance 
that  at  first  is  merely  functional,  must  neces- 

*  The  analysis  of  tobacco  as  given  by  different  authorities  varies  greatly.  The 
one  stated  in  the  text  suffices  for  the  purposes  of  this  chapter.  Von  Eulenberg 
names  several  other  products  of  the  combustion.  One  hundred  pounds  of  the  dry 
leaf  may  yield  as  high  as  seven  pounds  of  nicotine.  Havana  tobacco  contains  about 
two  per  cent,  and  Virginia  about  six  per  cent.  See  Johnston  &  Church's  Chemistry 
of  Common  Life,  and  Millers  Organic  Chemistry. 


200  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

sarily,  in  many  cases  at  least,  lead  to  a  chronic 
derangement. 

Probably  in  this,  as  in  the  case  of  other  deleterious 
articles  of  diet,  the  strong  and  healthy  will  seem  to 
escape  entirely,  while  the  weak  and  those  predis- 
posed to  disease  will  be  injured  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  extent  of  the  indulgence.  Those  whose  em- 
ployment leads  to  active,  outdoor  work,  will  show 
no  sign  of  nicotine  poisoning,  while  the  man  of  sed- 
entary habits  will  sooner  or  later  be  the  victim  of 
dyspepsia,  sleeplessness,  nervousness,  paralysis,  or 
other  organic  difficulties.  Even  where  the  user  of 
tobacco  himself  escapes  harm,  the  law  of  heredity 
asserts  itself,  and  the  innocent  offspring  only  too 
often  inherit  an  impaired  constitution,  and  a  ten- 
dency to  nervous  complaints. 

The  Various  Disturbances  produced  in  different  individuals 
and  constitutions  by  smoking  have  bejn  summed  up  by  Dr.  Richard- 
son as  follows  :  "  (a)  In  the  blood,  it  causes  undue  fluidity,  and  change 
in  the  red  corpuscles  ;  (&)  in  the  stomach,  it  gives  rise  to  debility, 
nausea,  and  vomiting ;  (r)  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth,  it 
produces  enlargement  and  soreness  of  the  tonsils — smoker's  sore  throat 
— redness,  dryness,  and  occasional  peeling  of  the  membrane,  and  either 
unnatural  firmness  and  contraction,  or  sponginess  of  the  gums  ;  and, 
where  the  pipe  rests  on  the  lips,  oftentimes  '  epithelial  cancer';  (d)  in 
the  heart,  it  causes  debility  of  the  organ,  and  irregular  action  ;  (e)  in 
the  bronchial  surface  of  the  lungs,  when  that  is  already  irritable,  it 
sustains  irritation,  and  increases  the  cough  ;  (/)  in  the  organs  of  sense, 
it  produces  dilation  of  ihe  pupils  of  the  eye,  confusion  of  vision,  bright 
lines,  luminous  or  cobweb  specks,  and  long  retention  of  images  on  the 
retina,  with  analogous  symptoms  affecting  the  ear,  viz.,  inability  to 
define  sounds  clearly,  and  the  occurrence  of  a  sharp,  ringing  noise  like 
a  whistle  ;  (g)  in  the  brain,  it  impairs  the  activity  of  the  organ,  oppress- 
ing it  if  it  be  nourished,  but  soothing  it  if  it  be  exhausted  ;  (h)  it 


TOBACCO.  201 

leads  to  paralysis  in  the  motor  and  sympathetic  nerves,  and  to  over- 
secretion  from  the  glands  which  the  sympathetic  nerves  control." 

Is  Tobacco  a  Food  ? — Here,  as  in  the  case  of  alco- 
hol, the  reply  is  a  negative  one.  Tobacco  manifests 
no  characteristic  of  a  food.  It  cannot  impart  to  the 
blood  an  atom  of  nutritive  matter  for  building  up 
the  body.  It  does  not  add  to,  but  rather  subtracts 
from,  the  total  vital  force.  It  confers  no  potential 
power  upon  muscle  or  brain.  It  stimulates  by  cut- 
ting off  the  nervous  supply  from  the  extremities  and 
concentrating  it  upon  the  centers.  But  stimulation 
is  not  nourishment ;  it  is  only  a  rapid  spending  of 
the  capital  stock.  There  is  no  greater  error  than  to 
mistake  the  exciting  of  an  organ  for  its  strengthening. 
The  Influence  upon  Youth. — Here,  too,  science 
utters  no  doubtful  voice.  Experience  asserts  only 
one  conviction.  Tobacco  retards  the  development  of 
mind  and  body.*  The  law  of  nature  is  that  of  steady 
growth.  It  cannot  admit  of  a  daily,  even  though  it 
be  merely  a  functional,  disturbance  that  weakens 
the  digestion,  that  causes  the  heart  to  labor  exces- 
sively, that  prevents  the  perfect  oxidation  of  the 
blood,  that  interferes  with  the  assimilation,  and  that 
deranges  the  nervous  system,  f  No  one  has  a  right 


*  Cigarettes  are  especially  injurious  from  the  irritating  smoke  of  the  paper 
covering,  taken  into  the  lungs,  and  also  because  the  poison  fumes  of  the  tobacco 
are  more  directly  inhnled.  In  ca:=e  of  the  cheap  cigarettes  often  smoked  by  boys,  ihc 
ingredients  used  are  harmful,  while  one  revolts  at  the  thought  of  the  filthy  mate- 
rials, refuse  cigar-stumps,  &c.,  employed  in  their  manufacture. 

t  There  is  one  influence  of  tobacco  that  every  young  man  should  understand.  In 
many  ca«es,  like  alcohol,  it,  seems  to  blunt  the  sensibilities,  and  make  its  user  care- 
less of  the  rights  and  feelings  of  others.  This  is  often  noticed  in  common  life.  We 
meet  occasionally  "  devotees  of  the  weed,"  who,  ignoring  the  fact  that  tobacco  is 
disagreeable  to  many  persons,  think  only  of  the  gratification  of  their  selfish  appetite. 
They  smoke  or  chew  in  any  place  or  company.  They  permit  the  cigar  fumes  to  blow 


202  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

thus  to  check  and  disturb  continually  the  regular 
processes  of  his  physical  and  mental  progress. 
Hence,  the  young  man  (especially  if  he  be  of  a 
nervous,  sensitive  organization)  who  uses  tobacco 
deliberately  diminishes  the  possible  energy  with 
which  he  might  commence  the  work  of  life  ;  *  while 
he  comes  under  the  bondage  of  a  habit  that  may 
become  stronger  than  his  will,  and  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  narcotic  that  may  beguile  his  faculties 
and  palsy  his  strength  at  the  very  moment  when 
every  power  should  be  awake. 

Another  peril  still  lies  in  the  wake  of  this  master- 
ful poison-habit.  Tobacco  causes  thirst  and  depres- 
sion that  only  too  often  and  naturally  lead  to  the  use 
of  liquor. 

III.  OPIUM. 

Opium  is  the  dried  juice  of  the  poppy.  In  Eastern 
countries,  this  flower  is  cultivated  in  immense  fields 

into  the  face?  of  passers-by.  They  sit  where  the  wind  carries  the  smoke  of  their  pipes 
BO  that  others  must  iuhale  it.  They  expectorate  upon  the  floor  of  care,  hotels,  and 
even  private  homes.  They  take  no  pains  to  remove  the  odor  that  lingers  about  their 
person  and  clothing.  They  force  all  who  happen  to  be  near,  their  companions,  their 
fellow-travelers,  to  inhale  the  nauseating  odor  of  tobacco.  Everything  must  be 
sacrificed  to  the  one  primal  necessity  of  such  persons — a  smoke.  Now,  a  young  man 
jnst  beginning  life,  with  his  fortune  to  make,  and  his  success  to  achieve,  can  not 
afford  to  burden  himself  with  a  habit  that  is  costly,  that  will  make  his  presence 
offensive  to  many  persons,  and  that  may  perhaps  render  him  less  sensitive  to  the 
best  influences,  and  perceptions  of  manhood. 

*  lu  tho  Polytechnic  School  at  Paris,  the  pupils  were  divided  into  two  classes— the 
pmokers,  and  the  non-smokers.  The  latter  not  only  excelled  on  the  entrance  exami- 
nations, but  during  the  entire  course  of  study.  Dr.  Decaiene  examined  thirty-eight 
boys  who  smoked,  and  found  twenty-seven  of  them  diseased  from  nicotine  poison- 
i  ig.  So  long  ago  as  1863,  In  consequence  of  these  results,  the  Minister  of  P  ublic 
Instruction  forbade  the  use  of  tobacco  by  the  pupils. 

Dr.  Gihon,  medical  director  of  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis,  In  his  report  for 
1R81.  pays :  "The  most  important,  matter  in  the  health-history  of  the  students  is  tint 
relating  to  tobacco,  and  its  interdiction  is  absolutely  essential  to  their  future  health 
nnd  usefulness.  In  this  view  I  have  been  sustained  by  my  colleagues,  and  all  sani- 
tarians in  civil  and  military  life  whose  views  I  have  been  able  to  obtain." 


OPIUM.  203 

for  the  sake  of  this  product.  When  a  cut  is  made  in 
the  poppy-head,  a  tiny  tear  of  milky  juice  exudes, 
and  hardens.  These  little  drops  are  gathered  and 
prepared  for  the  market,  an  acre  yielding,  it  is 
said,  about  twenty-five  pounds.  Throughout  the 
East,  opium  is  generally  smoked ;  but  in  Western 
countries  laudanum  and  paregoric  (tinctures  of 
opium),  and  morphine — a  powerful  alkaloid  con- 
tained in  opium,  are  generally  used.  The  drug  itself 
is  also  eaten. 

Physiological  Effect. — Opium,  in  its  various  forms, 
acts  directly  upon  the  nerves,  a  small  dose  quieting 
pain,  and  a  larger  one  soothing  to  sleep.  It  arouses 
the  brain,  and  fires  the  imagination  to  a  wonderful 
pitch.*  The  reaction  from  this  unnatural  excitant 
is  correspondingly  depressing ;  and  the  melancholy, 
the  "overwhelming  horror"  that  ensues,  calls  for  a 
renewal  of  the  stimulus.  The  dose  must  be  gradu- 
ally increased  to  produce  the  original  exhilaration.! 
The  seductive  nature  of  the  drug  leads  the  unfortu- 
nate victim  on  step  by  step  until  he  finds  himself 
fast  bound  in  the  fetters  of  the  most  tyrannical 
habit  known  to  man. 


*  De  Quincy  took  laudanum  for  the  first  time  to  relieve  pain,  hut  such  was  the 
intensity  of  the  feelings  he  then  experienced  that,  as  he  tells  ue  in  his  "Confessions 
of  an  Opium-eater,"  "  The  relief  from  pain  seemed  a  trifle.  Here  was  a  panacea  for 
all  human  woes.  Here  was  the  secret  of  happiness  about  which  philosophers  had 
disputed  for  so  many  ages.  Happiness  might  now  be  bought  for  a  penny,  and  car- 
ried in  the  waistcoat  pocket :  portable  ecstasies  might  be  had  corked  up  in  a  pint 
bottle." 

t  "  The  victim  of  opium  is  bound  to  a  drag  from  which  he  derives  no  benefits,  but 
which  slowly  deprives  him  of  health  and  happiness,  finally  to  end  in  idiocy  or  prema- 
ture death.  Whatever  the  victim's  condition  or  surroundings  may  be,  the  opinm 
must  be  taken  at  certain  times  with  inexorable  regularity.  The  liquor  or  tobacco 
user  can,  for  a  time,  go  without  the  use  of  these  agents,  and  no  regular  hours  are 
necessary.  During  sickness,  and  more  especially  during  the  eruptive  fevers,  he  does 
not  desire  tobacco  or  liquor.  The  opium-eater  has  no  such  reprieves  ;  his  dose  must 


204  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

To  go  on  is  to  wreck  all  one's  powers — physical 
and  mental.  To  throw  off  the  habit,  requires  a 
determination  that  but  few  possess.  Yet  even  when 
the  custom  is  broken,  the  system  is  long  in  recov- 
ering from  the  shock.  There  seems  to  be  a  failure 
of  every  organ.  The  digestion  is  weakened,  food 
is  no  longer  relished,  the  muscles  waste,  the  skin 
shrivels,  the  nervous  centers  are  paralyzed,  and  a 
premature  old  age  comes  on  apace.  De  Quincy,  four 
months  after  he  had  cast  away  the  opium-bonds, 
wrote,  "  Think  of  me  as  one  still  agitated,  writhing, 
throbbing,  palpitating,  shattered." 

No  person  can  be  too  careful  in  the  use  of  lau- 
danum, paregoric,  and  morphine.  They  may  be 
taken  on  a  physician's  prescription  as  a  sedative 
from  racking  pain,*  but  if  followed  up  for  any 
length  of  time,  the  powerful  habit  may  be  formed 
ere  one  is  aware.  Then  comes  the  opium-eater's 
grave,  or  the  opium-eater's  struggle  for  life  ! 


IV.  CHLORAL  HYDRATE. 

Chloral  Hydrate  is  a  drug  frequently  used  to 
cause  sleep.  It  leaves  behind  no  headache  or  lassi- 
tude, as  is  often  the  case  with  morphine.  It  is,  how- 
be  taken,  and,  in  painful  complications  affecting  the  stomach,  a  large  increase  is 
demanded  to  sustain  the  system.  If,  in  forming  the  habit,  two  doses  are  taken  each 
day,  the  victim  is  obliged  to  maintain  that  number.  It  is  the  unceasing,  everlasting 
slavery  of  regularity  that  humiliates  opium-eaters  by  a  sense  of  their  own  weakness. 
—Hubbard  on  The  Opium  Habit  and  Alcoholism. 

*  Many  persons  learn  to  inject  laudanum  beneath  the  skin  by  means  of  a  "  hypo- 
dermic syringe."  The  operation  is  painless,  and  seems  innocent  enough.  It 
throws  the  narcotic  directly  into  the  circulation,  and  relief  from  pain  is  often  almost 
instantaneous.  But  the  danger  of  forming  the  opium  habit  is  not  lessened,  and  the 
effect  of  using  the  drug  in  this  form  for  a  long  time  is  just  as  injurious  as  opium- 
smoking  itself. 


CHLOROFORM.  205 

ever,  a  treacherous  remedy.  It  is  cumulative  in  its 
effects,  i.  e.,  even  a  small  and  harmless  dose,  per- 
sisted in  for  a  long  period,  may  produce  a  gradual 
accumulation  of  evil  results  that  in  the  end  will 
prove  fatal. 

The  Physiological  Effect  is  very  marked.  The 
appetite  becomes  capricious.  The  secretions  are 
unnatural.  Nausea  and  flatulency  often  ensue. 
Then  the  nervous  system  is  involved.  The  heart 
is  affected.  Sleep  is  broken.  Finally,  the  hydrate 
being  decomposed,  by  the  action  of  the  soda  in  the 
blood,  into  formic  acid  and  chloroform,  a  new 
change  takes  place.  The  acid  combines  with  the 
soda,  making  sodium  formate,  and  the  blood,  under 
the  influence  of  this  salt,  becomes  unduly  fluid,  as 
it  does  in  the  case  of  persons  deprived  of  fresh  food. 
A  disease  resembling  scurvy  is  induced,  and  the 
skin  breaks  out  in  blotches. 


V.    CHLOROFORM. 

Chloroform  is  a  powerful  anaesthetic.  It  is  some- 
times prescribed  by  a  physician,  and  afterward  (as  in 
the  case  of  laudanum,  morphine,  and  chloral)  the 
sufferer,  charmed  with  the  release  from  pain  and  the 
peaceful  slumber  secured,  buys  the  dangerous  drug 
for  himself.  Its  use  soon  becomes  an  apparent 
necessity.  The  craving  for  the  narcotic  at  a  stated 
time  is  almost  irresistible.  The  patient,  compelled 
to  give  up  the  use  of  the  chloroform,  will  demand, 
entreat,  pray  for  another  dose,  in  a  heart-rending 
manner,  never  to  be  forgotten.  Paleness  and  debil- 


206  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

ity,  the  earliest  symptoms,  are  followed  by  mental 
prostration.  Familiarity  with  the  dangerous  drug 
begets  carelessness.  Its  victims  are  frequently 
found  dead  in  their  beds,  with  the  handkerchief 
from  which  they  inhaled  the  volatile  poison  clutched 
in  their  lifeless  hands. 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  is  the  pain  of  incipient  hip-disease  frequently  felt  in  the 
knee? 

2.  Why  does  a  child  require  more  sleep  than  an  aged  person  ? 

3.  When  you  put  your  finger  in  the  palm  of  a  sleeping  child,  why 
will  he  grasp  it  ? 

4.  How  may  we  strengthen  the  brain  ? 

5.  What  is  the  object  of  pain  ? 

6.  Why  will  a  blow  on  the  stomach  sometimes  stop  the  heart  ? 

7.  How  long  will  it  take  for  the  brain  of  a  man  six  feet  high  to 
receive  news  of  an  injury  to  his  foot,  and  to  reply  ? 

8.  How  can  we  grow  beautiful  ? 

9.  Why  do  intestinal  worms  ever  affect  a  child's  sight  ? 

10.  Is  there  any  indication  of  character  in  physiognomy? 

11.  When  one's  finger  is  burned,  where  is  the  ache  ? 

12.  Is  a  parlor  generally  a  healthful  room  ? 

13.  Why  can  an  idle  scholar  read  his  lesson  and  at  the  same  time 
count  the  marbles  in  his  pocket  ? 

14.  In  amputating  a  limb,  what  part,  when  divided,  will  cause  the 
keenest  pain  ? 

15.  What  is  the  effect  of  bad  air  on  nervous  people  ? 

16.  Is  there  any  truth  in  the  proverb  that  "he  who  sleeps  dines?" 

17.  What  does  a  high,  wide  forehead  indicate  ? 

18.  How  does  indigestion  frequently  cause  a  headache  ? 


PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS.  207 

19.  What  is  the  cause  of  one's  foot  being  "  asleep  "  ?* 

20.  When  an  injury  to  the  nose  has  been  remedied  by  transplanting 
skin  from  the  forehead,  why  is  a  touch  to  the  former  felt  in  the 
latter  ? 

21.  Are  closely-curtained  windows  healthful? 

22.  Why,  in  falling  from  a  height  do  the  limbs  instinct' vely  take  a 
position  to  defend  the  important  organs  ? 

23.  What  causes  the  pylorus  to  open  and  close  at  the  right  time  ? 

24.  Why  is  pleasant  exercise  most  beneficial  ? 

25.  Why  does  grief  cause  one  to  lose  his  appetite  ? 

26.  Why  should  we  never  study  directly  after  dinner  ? 

27.  What  produces  the  peristaltic  movement  of  the  stomach  ? 

28.  Why  is  a  healthy  child  so  restless  and  full  of  mischief? 

29.  Why  is  a  slight  blow  on  the  back  of  a  rabbit's  neck  fatal  ? 

30.  Why  can  one  walk  and  carry  on  a  conversation  at  the  same 
time? 

31.  What  are  the  dangers  of  over-study  ? 

32.  What  is  the  influence  of  idleness  upon  the  brain  ? 

33.  State  the  close  relation  which  exists  between  physical  and  men- 
tal health  and  disease. 

34.  In  what  consists  the  value  of  the  power  of  habit  ? 

35.  How  many  pairs  of  nerves  supply  the  eye  ? 

36.  Describe  the  reflex  actions  in  reading  aloud. 

37.  Under  what  circumstances  does  paralysis  occur  ? 

38.  If  the  eyelids  of  a  profound  sleeper  were  raised,  and  a  candle 
brought  near,  would  the  iris  contract  ? 

39.  How  does  one  cough  in  his  sleep? 

40.  Give  illustrations  of  the  unconscious  action  of  the  brain. 

41.  Is  chewing  tobacco  more  injurious  than  smoking? 

42.  Ought  a  man  to  retire  from  business  while  his  faculties  are  still 
unimpaired  ? 

43.  Which  is  the  more  exhaustive  to  the  brain,  worry  or  severe  men- 
tal application  ? 

*  "  Here  the  nervous  force  is  prevented  from  passing  by  compression.  Just  how 
this  is  done,  or  what  is  kept  from  passing,  we  cannot  tell.  If  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity were  moving  through  a  rubber  tube  full  of  mercury,  a  slight  squeeze  would 
interrupt  it.  These  cases  may  depend  on  the  same  general  principle,  but  we  cannot 
assert  it."— (Huxley.)  The  tingling  sensation  caused  by  the  compression  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  foot,  whence  the  nerve  starts. 


208  PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS. 

44.  Is  it  a  blessing  to  be  placed  beyond  the  necessity  for  work  ? 
46.  Show  how  anger,  hate,  and  the  other  degrading  passions  are 
destructive  to  the  brain.* 

46.  Are  not  amusements,  to  repair  the  waste  of  the  nervous  energy, 
especially  needed  by  persons  whose  life  is  one  of  care  and  toil  ? 

47.  Is  not  severe  mental  labor  incompatible  with  a  rapidly -growing 
body? 

48.  How  shall  we  induce  the  system  to  perform  all  its  functions 
regularly  ? 

49.  How  does  alcohol  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  nerves? 

50.  What  is  the  general  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  character? 

51.  Does  alcohol  tend  to  produce  clearness  and  vigor  of  thought  V 

52.  What  is  the  general  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  muscles  ? 

53.  Does  alcohol  have  any  effect  on  the  bones?    The  skin? 

54.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  "  alcoholic  chill "  ? 

55.  Show  how  alcohol  tends  to  develop  man's  lower,  rather  than  his 
higher,  nature. 

56.  When  we  wish  really  to  strengthen  the  brain,  should  we  use 
alcohol  ? 

57.  Why  is  alcohol  used  to  preserve  anatomical  specimens? 

58.  What  is  meant  by  an  inherited  taste  for  liquor? 

59.  Ought  a  person  to  be  punished  for  a  crime  committed  during 
intoxication  ? 

60.  Should  a  boy  ever  smoke  ? 

61.  To  what  extent  are  we  responsible  for  the  health  of  our  body  ? 

62.  Why  does  alcohol  tend  to  collect  in  the  brain  ? 

63.  Does  the  use  of  alcohol  tend  to  increase  crime,  and  poverty  ? 

*  "  One  of  the  surest  means  for  keeping  the  body  and  mind  in  perfect  health  con- 
sists in  learning  to  hold  the  passions  in  subservience  to  the  reasoning  faculties. 
This  rule  applies  to  every  passion.  Man,  distinguished  from  all  other  animals  by  the 
peculiarity  that  his  reason  is  placed  above  his  passions  to  be  the  director  of  his  will, 
can  protect  himself  from  every  mere  animal  degradation  resulting  from  passionate 
excitement.  The  education  of  the  man  should  be  directed  not  to  suppress  such 
passions  as  are  ennobling,  but  to  bring  all  under  governance,  and  specially  to  subdue 
those  most  destructive  passions,  anger,  hate,  and  fear." 


VIII. 

SPECIAL    SENSES, 


"See  how  yon  beam  of  seeming  white 
Is  braided  out  of  seven-hued  light ; 
Yet  in  those  lucid  globes  no  ray 
By  any  chance  shall  break  astray. 
Hark,  how  the  rolling  surge  of  sound, 
Arches  and  spirals  circling  round, 
Wakes  the  hush'd  spirit  through  thine  ear 
With  music  it  is  heaven  to  hear" 

HOLMES. 


"  Let  us  remember  that  if  we  get  a  glimpse  of  the  details  of  natural 
phenomena,  and  of  those  movements  which  constitute  life>  it  is  not  in  con- 
sidering them  as  a  whole,  but  in  analyzing  them  as  far  as  our  limited  means 
will  permit.  In  the  vibrations  of  the  globe  of  air  which  surrounds  our 
planet,  as  in  the  undulations  of  the  ether  which  fills  the  immensity  of  space, 
it  is  always  by  molecules  which  are  intangible  for  us,  put  in  motion  by 
nature,  always  by  the  infinitely  little,  that  she  acts  in  exciting  the  organs 
of  sense,  and  she  has  modeled  these  organs  in  a  proportion  which  enables 
them  to  partake  in  the  movement  which  she  impresses  upon  the  universe. 
She  can  paint  with  equal  facility  on  a  fraction  of  a  line  of  space  on  the 
retina,  the  grandest  landscape  or  the  nerve  lets  of  a  rose-leaf;  the  celestial 
vault  on  which  Sirius  is  but  a  luminous  point,  or  the  sparkling  dust  of  a 
butterfly's  wing  :  the  roar  of  the  tempest,  the  roll  of  thunder,  the  echo  of  an 
avalanche,  find  equal  place  in  the  labyrinth  whose  almost  imperceptible 
cavities  seem  destined  to  receive  only  the  most  delicate  sounds." 


1.  THE  TOUCH... 


2.  THE  TASTE. 


3.  THE  SMELL... 


4.  THE  HEARING. 


5.  THE  SIGHT..  . 


!1.  Description  of  the  Organ. 
2.  Its  Uses. 

1.  Description  of  the  Organ. 

2.  Its  Uses. 

1.  Description  of  the  Organ. 

2.  Its  Uses. 

•  1.  Description  of  the  Organ. 

2.  How  we  hear. 
.  3.  Hygiene  of  the  Ear. 


a.  External  Ear. 

b.  Middle  Ear. 

c.  Internal  Ear. 


1.  Description  of  the  Organ. 

2.  Eyelids,  and  Tears. 

3.  Structure  of  the  Retina. 

4.  How  we  see. 

5.  The  Use  of  the  Crystalline  Lens. 
i  6.  Near,  and  Far  Sight. 

7.  Color-blindness. 

8.  Hygiene  of  the  Eyes. 


THE    SPECIAL    SENSES. 


1.    TOUCH. 

"^DESCRIPTION.— Touch  is  sometimes  called  the 
-L/  "  common  sense/'  since  its  nerves  are  spread 
over  the  whole  body.  It  is  most  delicate,  however, 
in  the  point  of  the  tongue  and  the  tips  of  the  fingers. 
The  surface  of  the  cutis  is  covered  with  minute, 
conical  projections  called  papillce  (Fig.  24).*  Each 
of  these  contains  its  tiny  nerve-twigs,  that  receive 
the  impression  and  transmit  it  to  the  brain,  where 
the  perception  is  produced. 

Uses. — Touch  is  the  first  of  the  senses  used  by  a 
child.  By  it  we  obtain  our  idea  of  solidity,  and 
throughout  life  rectify  all  other  sensations.  Thus, 
when  we  see  anything  curious,  our  first  desire  is  to 
handle  it. 

The  sensation  of  touch  is  generally  relied  upon, 
yet,  if  we  hold  a  marble  in  the  manner  shown  in 
Fig.  57,  it  will  seem  like  two  marbles ;  and  if  we 
touch  the  fingers  thus  crossed  to  our  tongue,  we 
shall  feel  two  tongues.  Again,  if  we  close  our  eyes 
and  let  another  person  move  one  of  our  fingers  over 

*  In  the  palm  of  the  hand,  where  there  are  at  least  12,000  in  a  square  inch,  we  can 
see  the  fine  ridges  along  which  they  are  arranged. 


SPECIAL   SENSES. 


a  plane  surface,  first  lightly,  then  with  greater 
pressure,  and  then  lightly  again,  we  shall  think  the 
surface  concave. 


Fig.  57. 


This  organ  is  capable  of  wonderful  cultivation. 
The  physician  acquires  by  practice  the  tactus  erudi- 
tus,*  or  learned  touch,  which  is  often  of  great  ser- 
vice. The  delicacy  of  touch  possessed  by  the  blind 
almost  compensates  the  loss  of  the  absent  sense,  f 

*  An  educated  sense  of  touch  was  possessed  by  the  late  Dr.  March  of  Albany,  to  a 
remarkable  degree.  It  had  been  cultivated  and  perfected  in  the  course  of  extensive 
surgical  practice  to  such  an  extent  as  to  become  delicate,  precise,  and  nearly  unfail- 
ing as  a  means  of  diagnosis.  On  one  occasion  the  Doctor  was  summoned  to  see  a 
man  who  was  supposed  to  have  extensive  cancerous  disease  of  the  thigh,  which  had 
been  developing  many  months.  The  importance  of  the  case  had  called  an  unusual 
number  of  physicians  to  the  bedside  of  the  patient,  and  after  very  thorough  examina- 
tion of  the  unyielding  swelling  by  them  all,  Dr.  March  subjected  it  to  close  scrutiny, 
using  his  fingers  with  astonishing  caution  and  delicacy,  and  appearing  to  be  absorbed 
in  the  investigation.  A  consultation  followed  in  an  adjoining  room,  and  from  the 
youngest  to  the  oldest,  opinions  were  expressed  that  the  tumor  was  malignant  in 
character  and  called  for  amputation  of  the  thigh,  as  affording  the  only  means  of  ar- 
resting the  disease,  or  of  saving  or  prolonging  life.  Dr.  March  dissented  from  this 
view,  and  boldly  stated  that  the  swelling  was  an  abscess,  which  could  be  emptied  by 
a  free  incision.  The  reputation  of  the  surgeon,  and  the  positiveness  of  his  assertion, 
caused  his  advice  to  be  heeded,  and  he  was  permitted  to  make  an  attempt  to  reach 
the  matter,  under  mental  protest  of  his  associates  that  he  would  fail  in  his  expecta- 
tions. The  patient,  willing  to  believe  almost  against  hope,  suffered  the  Doctor  to 
proceed  with  the  operation.  Taking  a  scalpel,  and  guided  by  his  fingers  in  selecting  a 
location,  he  made  a  deep  incision  through  the  dense  structures  of  the  thigh.  Nothing 
but  blood  flowed  from  the  wound.  A  second  plunge  of  the  knife  brought  such  an 
overwhelming  discharge  of  pus  from  the  immensely-distended  cavity,  as  to  amount 
in  the  quantity  collected  to  several  pints.  Rapid  recovery  followed  and  the  limb  was 
saved.— Dr.  Wm.  C.  Wey. 

t  The  sympathy  between  the  different  organs  shows  how  they  all  combine  to 
make  a  home  for  the  mind.  When  one  sense  fails,  the  others  endeavor  to  remedy 
the  defect.  It  is  touching  to  see  how  the  blind  man  gets  along  without  eyes,  and  the 


TASTE. 


213 


The  Tongue,  showing  the  three  kinds  of  Papilla— (he  conical  (D),  the  whip-like  (K, 
I),  the  circumvallate  or  entrenched  (H,  L) ;  E,  F,  G,  nerves ;  C,  glottis.— Lankester. 

Description. — This  sense  is  located  in  the  papillae  of 
the  tongue  and  palate.  These  papillae  start  up  when 
tasting,  as  you  can  see  by  placing  a  drop  of  vinegar 
on  another  person's  tongue,  or  your  own  before  a 

deaf  without  ears.  Cuthbert,  though  blind,  was  the  most  efficient  polisher  of  tele- 
scopic mirrors  in  London.  Saunderson,  the  successor  of  Newton  as  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Cambridge,  could  distinguish  between  real  and  spurious  medals. 
There  is  an  instance  recorded  of  a  blind  man  who  could  recognize  colors.  The  author 
knew  one  who  could  tell  when  he  was  approaching  a  tree,  as  he  said,  by  the  different 
feeling  of  the  air. 


THE  SPECIAL  SENSES. 

mirror.  The  velvety  look  of  this  organ  is  given  by 
hair-like  projections  of  the  cuticle  upon  some  of  the 
papillae.  They  absorb  the  liquid  to  be  tasted,  and 
convey  it  to  the  nerves.*  The  back  of  the  tongue  is 
most  sensitive  to  salt  and  bitter  substances,  and,  as 
this  part  is  supplied  by  the  ninth  pair  of  nerves  (Fig. 
56),  in  sympathy  with  the  stomach,  such  flavors,  by 
sympathy,  often  produce  vomiting.  The  edges  of 
the  tongue  are  most  sensitive  to  sweet  and  sour  sub- 
stances, and  as  this  part  is  supplied  by  the  fifth  pair 
of  nerves,  which  also  goes  to  the  face,  an  acid,  by 
sympathy,  distorts  the  countenance. 

The  Use  of  the  Taste  was  originally  to  guide  in 
the  selection  of  food  ;  but  it  has  become  so  depraved 
by  condiments  and  the  force  of  habit  that  it  would 
be  a  difficult  task  to  tell  what  are  one's  natural 
tastes. 

V  3.    SMELL. t 

Description. — The  nose,  the  seat  of  this  sense,  is 
composed  of  cartilage  covered  with  muscles  and 
skin,  and  joined  to  the  skull  by  small  bones.  The 
nostrils  open  at  the  back  into  the  pharynx,  and  are 
lined  by  a  continuation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  throat.  The  olfactory  nerves  (first  pair,  Fig.  55) 
enter  through  a  sieve-like,  bony  plate  at  the  roof  of 
the  nose,  and  are  distributed  over  the  inner  surface 
of  the  two  olfactory  chambers.  The  object  to  be 


*  An  insoluble  substance  is  therefore  tasteless. 

t  The  sense  of  smell  is  so  intimately  connected  with  that  of  taste  that  we  often 
fail  to  distinguish  between  them.  Garlic,  vanilla,  coffee,  and  various  spices,  which 
seem  to  have  such  distinct  taste,  have  really  a  powerful  odor  but  a  feeble  flavor. 


SMELL. 


215 


smelled  need  not  touch  the  nose,  but  tiny  particles 
borne  on  the  air  enter  the  nasal  passages.  * 


Fig.  59. 


A,  b,  c,  d,  interior  of  the  nose,  which  is  lined  by  a  mucous  membrane  ;  n,  (he  nose  ; 
e,  the  wing  of  the  nose ;  q,  the  nose  bones ;  o,  the  upper  lip ;  g,  section  of  the  upper 
jaw-bone;  h,  the  upper  part  of  the  mouth,  or  hard  palate;  m,  frontal  bone  of  the 
skull ;  k,  the  ganglion  or  bulb  of  the  olfactory  nerve  in  the  skull,  from  ivhich  are  seen 
the  branches  of  the  nerve  passing  in  all  directions. 


*  "  Three-quarters  of  a  grain  of  musk  placed  in  a  room  cauce  a  very  powerful 
smell  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  without  any  sensible  diminution  in  weight, 
and  the  box  in  which  musk  has  been  placed  retains  the  perfume  for  almost  an  in- 
definite period.  Haller  relates  that  some  papers  which  had  been  perfumed  by  a  grain 
of  ambergris  were  still  very  odoriferous  after  a  lapse  of  forty  years.  Odors  are 
transported  by  the  air  to  a  considerable  distance.  A  dog  recognizes  his  master's 
approach  by  smell  even  when  he  is  far  away  ;  and  we  are  assured  by  navigators  that 
the  winds  bring  the  delicious  odors  of  the  balmy  forests  of  Ceylon  to  a  distance  of 
ten  leagues  from  the  coast.  Even  after  making  clue  allowance  for  the  effects  of  the 
imagination,  it  is  certain  that  odors  act  as  an  excitant  on  the  brain,  which  may  be 
dangerous  when  long  continued.  They  are  especially  dreaded  by  the  Roman  women. 
It  is  well  known  that  in  ancient  times  the  women  of  Rome  indulged  in  a  most  im- 
moderate use  of  baths  and  perfumes  ;  but  those  of  our  times  have  nothing  in  common 
with  them  in  this  respect ;  and  the  words  of  a  lady  are  quoted,  who  said  on  admiring 
an  artificial  rose, 4  It  is  all  the  more  beautiful  that  it  has  no  smell.'  We  are  warned  by 
the  proverb  not  to  discuss  colors  or  tastes,  and  we  may  add  odors  also.  Men  and 


216  THE   SPECIAL   SENSES. 

The  Uses  of  the  sense  of  smell  are  to  guide  us  in 
the  choice  of"  our  food,  and  to  warn  us  against  bad 
air,  and  unhealthy  localities. 

4.    HEARING. 
Fig.  60. 


.  '• 


The  Ear. 

Description. — The  ear  is  divided  into  the  external, 
middle,  and  internal  ear. 

1.  THE  EXTERNAL  EAR  is  a  sheet  of  cartilage 
curiously  folded  for  catching  sound.  The  auditory 
canal,  B,  or  tube  of  this  ear-trumpet,  is  about  an 
inch  long.  Across  the  lower  end  is  stretched  the 
membrane  of  the  tympanum  or  drum,  which  is  kept 
soft  by  a  fluid  wax. 

nations  differ  singularly  in  this  respect.  The  Laplander  and  the  Esquimaux  find  the 
smell  of  fish-oil  delicious.  Wrangel  says  his  compatriots,  the  Russians,  are  very 
fond  of  the  odor  of  pickled  cabbage,  which  forms  an  important  part  of  their  food  ; 
and  asafoetida,  it  is  said,  is  used  as  a  condiment  in  Persia,  and,  in  spite  of  its  name, 
there  are  persons  who  do  not  find  its  odor  disagreeable  any  more  than  that  of  vale- 
rian."— Wonders  of  (he  Human  Body. 


HEARING.  217 

2.  THE  MIDDLE  EAR  is  a  cavity,  at  the  bottom  of 
which  is  the  Eustachian  tube,   G,   leading  to  the 
mouth.    Across  this  chamber  hangs  a  chain  of  three 
singular  little  bones,  C,  named  from  their  shape  the 
hammer,  the  anvil,  and  the  stirrup.     All  together 
these  tiny  bones  weigh  only  a  few  grains,  yet  they 
are    covered   by  a    periosteum,   are    supplied  with 
blood-vessels,  and  they  articulate  with  perfect  joints 
(one  a  ball-and-socket,  the  other  a  hinge),  having 
synovial    membranes,     cartilages,    ligaments,    and 
muscles. 

3.  THE  INTERNAL  EAR,  or  labyrinth,  as  it  is  some- 
times called  from  its  complex  character,  is  hollowed 
out  of  the  solid  bone.     In  front  is  the  vestibule  or 
ante-chamber,  A,  about  as  large  as  a  grain  of  wheat ; 
from  it  open  three  semi-circular  canals,  D,  and  the 
winding  stair  of  the  cochlea,  or  snail  shell,  E.     Here 
expand  the  delicate  fibrils  of  the  auditory  nerve. 
Floating  in  the  liquid  which  fills  the  labyrinth  is 
a  little  bag  containing  hair-like  bristles,  fine  sand, 
and  two  ear-stones  (otoliths).     All  these  knocking 
against  the  ends  of  the  nerves,  serve  to  increase 
any  impulse  given  to  the  liquid  in  which  they  lie. 
Finally,  to  complete  this  delicate  apparatus,  in  the 
cochlea  are  minute  tendrils,   named  the  fibers  of 
Corti,  from  their  discoverer.     These  are  regularly 
arranged,  —  the    longest    at    the    bottom,    and    the 
shortest  at  the  top.     Could  this  spiral  plate,  which 
coils  two  and  a  half  times  around,  be  unrolled  and 
made  to  stand  upright,  it  would  form  a  beautiful 
microscopic  harp  of  three  thousand  strings.     If  it 
were  possible  to  strike  these  cords  as  one  can  the 
keyboard  of  a  piano,  he  could  produce  in  the  mind 


218  THE   SPECIAL   SENSES. 

of  the  person  experimented  upon  every  variety  of 
tone  which  the  ear  can  distinguish. 

How  We  Hear.— Whenever  one  body  strikes  an- 
other in  the  air,  waves  are  produced,  just  as  when 
we  throw  a  stone  into  the  water  a  series  of  con- 
centric circles  surrounds  the  spot  where  it  sinks. 
These  waves  of  air  strike  upon  the  membrane.  This 
vibrates,  and  sends  the  motion  along  the  chain  of 
bones  in  the  middle  ear  to  the  fluids  of  the  laby- 
rinth. Here  bristles,  sand,  and  stones  pound  away, 
and  the  wondrous  harp  of  the  cochlea,  catching  up 
the  pulsations,*  carries  them  to  the  fibers  of  the 
auditory  nerve,  which  conveys  them  to  the  brain, 
and  gives  the  mind  the  idea  of  sound. 

Care  of  the  Ear. — The  delicacy  of  the  ear  is  such 
that  it  needs  the  greatest  care.  Cold  water  should 
not  be  allowed  to  enter  the  auditory  canal.  If  the 
wax  accumulate,  never  remove  it  with  a  hard  instru- 
ment, lest  the  delicate  membrane  be  injured,  but 
with  a  little  warm  water,  after  which  turn  the  head 
to  let  the  water  run  out,  and  wipe  the  ear  dry. 
The  hair  around  the  ears  should  never  be  left  wet, 
as  it  may  chill  this  sensitive  organ.  If  an  insect 
get  in  the  external  ear,  pour  in  a  little  oil  to  kill  it, 
and  then  remove  with  tepid  water.  The  object  of 
the  Eustachian  tube  is  to  admit  air  into  the  ear,  and 
thus  equalize  the  pressure  on  the  membrane.  If  it 
become  closed  by  a  cold,  or  if,  from  any  cause,  the 

*  The  original  motion  is  constantly  modified  by  the  medinm  through  which  it 
Basses.    The  bristles,  otoliths,  and  Cortinn  fibers  of  the  ear,  and  the  rods  and  con 
of  the  eye  (p.  221)  serve  to  convert  the  vibrations  into  pulsations  which  act  as  stimuli 
of  the  appropriate  nerve.   The  molecular  change  thus  produced  iu  the  nerve-fibers  i 
propagated  to  the  brain.    (Physics,  p.  142.) 


SIGHT. 


219 


pressure  be  made  unequal,  so  as  to  produce  an 
unpleasant  feeling  in  the  ear,  relief  may  often  be 
obtained  by  grasping  the  nose  and  forcibly  swal- 
lowing. 


SIGHT. 


The  Eye. 

Description.— The  eye  is  lodged  in  a  bony  cavity, 
protected  by  the  overhanging  brow.  It  is  a  globe, 
about  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  ball  is  covered  by 
three  coats— (1)  the  sclerotic,  d,  a  tough,  horny  casing, 
which  gives  shape  to  the  eye,  the  convex,  trans- 
parent part  in  front  forming  a  window,  the  cornea,  c  ; 
(2)  the  choroid,  e,  a  black  lining,  to  absorb  the  super- 
fluous light ;  *  and  (3)  the  retina,  b,  a  membrane  in 

*  Neither  white  rabbits  nor  albinos  have  this  black  lining,  and  hence  their  eight 
js  confused. 


220 


THE  SPECIAL  SENSES. 


which  expand  fibers  of  the  optic  nerve,  o.  The  crys- 
talline lens,  a,  brings  the  rays  of  light  to  a  focus  on 
the  retina.  The  lens  is  kept  in  place  by  the  ciliary 
processes,  g,  arranged  like  the  rays  in  the  disk  of  a 
passion-flower.  Between  the  cornea  and  the  crys- 
talline lens  is  a  limpid  fluid  termed  the  aqueous 
humor ;  while  the  vitreous  humor — a  transparent, 
jelly-like  liquid — fills  the  space  (h)  back  of  the  crys- 
talline lens.  The  pupil,  k,  is  a  hole  in  the  colored, 
muscular  curtain,  i,  the  iris  (rainbow). 

rig.  6* 


The  Eyelashes  and  the  Tear-glands. 

Eyelids  and  Tears. — The  eyelids  are  close-fitting 
shutters  to  screen  the  eye.  The  inner  side  is  lined 
with  a  mucous  membrane  that  is  exceedingly  sensi- 
tive, and  thus  aids  in  protecting  the  eye  from  any 
irritating  substance.  The  looseness  of  the  skin 
favors  swelling  from  inflammation  or  the  effusion 
of  blood,  as  in  a  "black  eye."  The  eyelashes  serve 
as  a  kind  of  sieve  to  exclude  the  dust,  and,  with  the 


STKUCTUKE  OF  THE  RETINA. 


221 


Fig. 


lids,  to  shield  against  a  blinding  light.  Just  within 
the  lashes  are  oil  glands,  which  lubricate  the  edges 
of  the  lids,  and  prevent  them  from  adhering  to  each 
other.  The  tear  or  lachrymal  gland,  G,  is  an  oblong 
body  lodged  in  the  bony  wall  of  the  orbit.  It 
empties  by  several  ducts  upon  the  inner  surface, 
at  the  outer  edge  of  the  upper  eyelid.  Thence  the 
tears,  washing  the  eye,  run  into  the 
lachrymal  lake,  D,  a  little  basin 
with  a  rounded  border  fitted  for 
their  reception.  On  each  side  of 
this  lake  two  canals,  (7,  (7,  drain 
off  the  overplus  through  the  duct, 
B,  into  the  nose.  In  old  age  and 
in  disease,  these  canals  fail  to  con- 
duct the  tears  away,  and  hence  the 
lachrymal  lake  overflows  upon  the 
face. 

Structure  of  the  Retina. — In  Fig. 
63  is  shown  a  section  of  the  retina, 
greatly  magnified,  since  this  mem- 
brane never  exceeds  -fa  of  an  inch 
in  thickness.  On  the  inner  surface 
next  to  the  vitreous  humor,  is  a 
lining  membrane  not  shown  in  the 
cut.  Next  to  the  choroid  and  com- 
prising about  J  the  entire  thickness 
of  the  retina,  is  a  multitude  of 
transparent,  colorless,  microscopic 
rods,  a,  evenly  arranged  and  packed  side  by  side, 
like  the  seeds  on  the  disk  of  a  sunflower.  Among 
them,  at  regular  intervals,  are  interspersed  the 
cones,  b.  Delicate  nerve  fibers  pass  from  the  ends 


Structure  of  the  Setina. 


222  THE   SPECIAL  SENSES. 

of  the  rods  and  cones,  each  expanding  into  a  granu- 
lar body,  c,  thence  weaving  a  mesh,  d,  and  again 
expanding  into  the  granules,  /.  Last  is  a  layer  of 
fine  nerve-fibers,  g,  and  gray,  ganglionic  cells,  h, 
like  the  gray  matter  of  the  brain,  whence  filaments 
extend  into  i,  the  fibers  of  the  optic  nerve. 

The  layer  of  rods  and  cones  is  to  the  eye  what  the 
bristles,  otoliths,  and  Cortian  fibers  are  to  the  ear. 
Indeed,  the  nerve  itself  is  insensible  to  light.  At 
the  point  where  it  enters  the  eye,  there  are  no  rods 

Fig.  6k. 


and  cones,  and  this  is  called  the  blind  spot.  A  sim- 
ple experiment  will  illustrate  the  fact.  Hold  this 
book  directly  before  the  face,  and,  closing  the  left 
eye,  look  steadily  with  the  right  at  the  left-hand 
circle  in  Fig.  64.  Move  the  book  back  and  forth, 
and  a  point  will  be  found  where  the  right-hand 
circle  vanishes  from  sight.  At  that  moment  its 
light  falls  upon  the  spot  where  the  rods  and  cones 
are  lacking. 

How  We  See. — There  is  believed  to  be  a  kind  of 
universal  atmosphere,  termed  ether,  filling  all  space. 
This  substance  is  infinitely  more  subtle  than  the  air, 
and  occupies  its  pores,  as  well  as  those  of  all  other 
substances,  As  sound  is  caused  by  waves  in  the 


THE  USE  OF  THE  CRYSTALLINE  LEtfS.  223 

atmosphere,  so  light  is  produced  by  waves  in  the 
ether.  A  lamp-light,  for  example,  sets  in  motion 
waves  of  ether,  which  pass  in  through  the  pupil 
of  the  eye  to  the  retina,  where  the  rods  and  cones 
transmit  the  vibration  through  the  optic  nerve  to 
the  brain,  and  then  the  mind  perceives  the  light 
(note,  p.  218). 

The  Use   of  the   Crystalline  Lens.*  —  A  convex 
lens,  as  a  common  burning-glass,  bends  the  rays  of 

Flq.  65. 


Diagram  showing  how  an  image  of  an  object  is  formed  upon  the  retina  by  the 
Crystalline  Lens. 

light  which  pass  through  it,  so  that  they  meet  at  a 
point  called  the  focus.  The  crystalline  lens  con- 
verges the  rays  of  light  which  enter  the  eye,  and 
brings  them  to  a  focus  on  the  retina,  f  The  healthy 
lens  has  a  power  of  changing  its  convexity  so  as 
to  adapt  I  itself  to  near  and  to  distant  objects. 
(See  Fig.  66.) 

*  The  uses  of  the  eye  and  ear  are  dependent  upon  the  principles  of  Optics  and 
Acoustics.  They  are  therefore  best  treated  in  Physics. 

t  The  cornea  and  the  humors  of  the  eye  act  in  the  same  manner  as  the  crystalline 
lens,  but  not  so  powerfully. 

t  The  simplest  way  of  experimenting  on  the  ll  adjustment  of  the  eye  "  is  to  stick 
two  stout  needles  upright  into  a  straight  piece  of  wood,— not  exactly,  but  nearly  in 


224  f  HE  SPECIAL  SENSES. 


Near  and  Far  Sight  —  If  the  lens  be  too  convex,  it 
will  bring  the  rays  to  a  focus  before  they  reach  the 
retina  ;  if  too  flat,  they  will  reach  the  retina  before 
coming  to  a  focus.  In  either  case,  the  sight  will  be 

Fig.  66, 


A  * 

Adjustment  of  the  Crystalline  Lens.    A,  for  far  objects,  and  B,/or  near. 

indistinct.    A  more  common  defect,  however,  is  in 
the  shape  of  the  globe  of  the  eye,  which  is  either 

Fig.  67. 


Diagram  illustrating  the  position  of  the  Retina.— B.  in  natural  sight ;  G,  in  far 
sight ;  and  C,  in  near  sight. 

flattened  or  elongated.  In  the  former  case  (see  G, 
Fig.  67),  objects  at  a  distance  can  be  seen  most  dis- 

the  same  straight  line,  so  that,  on  applying  the  eye  to  one  end  of  the  piece  of  wood, 
one  needle  (A)  shall  be  seen  about  six  inches  off,  and  the  other  (S)  just  on  one  side 
of  it,  at  twelve  inches  distance.  If  the  observer  looks  at  the  needle  B  he  will  find 
that  he  sees  it  very  distinctly,  and  without  the  least  sense  of  effort :  but  the  image 
of  A  is  blurred  and  more  or  less  double.  Now,  let  him  try  to  make  this  blurred 
image  of  the  needle  A  distinct.  He  will  find  he  can  do  so  readily  enough,  but  that 
the  act  is  accompanied  by  a  sense  of  fatigue.  And  in  proportion  as  A  becomes 
distinct,  B  will  become  blurred.  Nor  will  any  effort  enable  him  to  see  A  and  B 
distinctly  at  the  same  time.—  HUXLEY. 


COLOR-BLIND   PERSONS.  225 

tinctly — hence  that  is  called  far-sightedness.*  In 
the  latter,  objects  near  by  are  clearer,  and  hence 
this  is  termed  near-sightedness.  Far-sightedness  is 
remedied  by  convex  glasses ;  near-sightedness,  by 
concave.  When  glasses  will  improve  the  sight  they 
should  be  worn  ;f  any  delay  will  be  liable  to  injure 
the  eyes,  by  straining  their  already  impaired  power. 
Cataract  is  a  disease  in  which  there  is  an  opacity  of 
the  crystalline  lens  or  its  capsules,  which  obscures 
the  vision.  The  lens  may  be  caused  to  be  absorbed, 
or  may  be  removed  by  a  skilful  surgeon  and  the 
defect  remedied  by  wearing  convex  glasses. 

Color-blind  Persons  receive  only  two  of  the  three 
elementary  color  -  sensations  (green,  red,  violet). 
The  spectrum  appears  to  them  to  consist  of  two 
decidedly  different  colors,  with  a  band  of  neutral  tint 
between.  The  extreme  red  end  is  invisible,  and  a 
bright  scarlet  and  a  deep  green  appear  alike.  They 
are  unable  to  distinguish  between  the  leaves  of  a 
cherry-tree  and  its  fruit  by  the  color  of  the  two,  and 
see  no  difference  between  blue  and  yellow  cloth. 
Whittier,  the  poet,  it  is  said,  cannot  tell  red  from 
green  unless  in  direct  sunlight.  Once  he  patched 
some  damaged  wall-paper  in  his  library  by  matching 
a  green  vine  in  the  pattern  with  one  of  a  bright 
autumnal  crimson.  This  defect  in  the  eye  is  often 
unnoticed,  and  many  railway  accidents  have  doubt- 


*  This  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  long  sight  of  old  people,  which  is 
caused  by  the  stiffness  of  the  ciliary  muscles,  whereby  the  lens  cannot  adapt  itself  to 
the  varying  distances  of  objects. 

t  Dr.  Henry  W.  Williams,  the  celebrated  ophthalmologist,  says  that,  in  some 
cases,  glasses  are  more  necessary  at  six  or  eigjit  years  of  age  than  to  the  majority  of 
healthy  eyes  at  sixty.  Sometimes  children  find  accidentally  that  they  can  see  better 
through  grandmother's  spectacles.  They  should  then  be  supplied  with  their  own. 


THE  SPECIAL 

less  happened  through  an   inability  to  detect  the 
color  of  signal  lights. 

Care  of  the  Eyes. — The  shape  of  the  eye  cannot 
be  changed  by  rubbing  and  pressing  it,  as  many 
suppose,  but  the  sight  may  thus  be  fatally  injured. 
Children  troubled  by  near-sightedness  should  not 
lean  forward  at  their  work,  as  thereby  the  vessels 
of  the  eye  become  overcharged  with  blood.  They 
should  avoid  fine  print,  and  try,  in  every  possible 
way,  to  spare  their  eyes.  If  middle  age  be  reached 
without  especial  difficulty  of  sight,  the  person  is 
comparatively  safe.  Most  cases  of  squinting  are 
caused  by  long-sightedness,  the  muscles  being 
strained  in  the  effort  to  obtain  distinct  vision.  In 
childhood,  it  may  be  cured  by  a  competent  surgeon, 
who  will  generally  cut  the  muscle  that  draws  the 
eye  out  of  place. 

Healthy  eyes  even  should  never  be  used  to  read 
fine  print  or  by  a  dim  light.  Serious  injury  may  be 
caused  by  an  imprudence  of  this  kind.  Reading 
upon  the  cars  is  also  a  fruitful  source  of  harm.  The 
lens,  striving  to  adapt  itself  to  the  incessantly-vary- 
ing distance  of  the  page,  soon  becomes  wearied. 

Objects  that  get  into  the  eye  should  be  removed 
before  they  cause  inflammation ;  rubbing  in  the 
mean  time  only  irritates  and  increases  the  sensitive- 
ness. If  the  eye  be  shut  for  a  few  moments,  so  as  to 
let  the  tears  accumulate,  and  the  upper  lid  be  then 
lifted  by  taking  hold  of  it  at  the  center,  the  cinder 
or  dust  is  often  washed  away  at  once.  Trifling  ob- 
jects can  be  removed  by  simply  drawing  the  upper 
lid  as  far  as  possible  over  the  lower  one ;  when  the 
lid  flies  back  to  its  place,  the  friction  will  detach 


CARE  OF  THE  EYES. 

any  light  substance.  If  it  becomes  necessary,  turn 
the  upper  lid  over  a  pencil,  and  the  intruder  may 
then  be  wiped  off  with  a  handkerchief.  "Eye- 
stones  "  are  a  popular  delusion.  When  they  seem  to 
take  out  a  cinder,  it  is  only  because  they  raise  the 
eyelid,  and  allow  the  tears  to  wash  it  out.  No  one 
should  ever  use  an  eye-wash,  except  by  medical 
advice.  The  eye  is  too  delicate  an  organ  to  be  trifled 
with,  and  when  any  disease  is  suspected,  a  reliable 
physician  should  be  consulted.  This  is  especially 
necessary,  since,  when  one  eye  is  injured,  the  other, 
by  sympathy,  is  liable  to  become  inflamed,  and  per- 
haps be  destroyed. 

When  reading  or  working,  the  light  should  be  at 
one  side,  and  never  in  front. 

The  constant  increase  of  defective  eyesight  among 
the  pupils  in  our  schools  is  an  alarming  fact.  Dr. 
Agnew  considers  that  our  school-rooms  are  fast 
making  us  a  spectacle-using  people.  Near-sighted- 
ness seems  to  increase  from  class  to  class,  until,  in 
the  upper  departments,  there  are  sometimes  as  high 
as  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  pupils  thus  afflicted.  The 
causes  are  (1),  desks  so  placed  as  to  make  the  light 
from  the  windows  shine  directly  into  the  eyes  of  the 
scholars ;  (2),  cross-lights  from  opposite  windows  ; 
(3),  insufficient  light ;  (4),  small  type  that  strains  the 
eyes ;  and  (5),  the  position  of  the  pupil  as  he  bends 
over  his  desk  or  slate,  causing  the  blood  to  settle  in 
his  eyes.  All  these  causes  can  be  remedied ;  the 
position  of  the  desks  can  be  changed  ;  windows  can 
be  shaded,  or  new  ones  inserted ;  books  and  news- 
papers that  try  the  eyes  can  be  rejected ;  and  every 
pupil  can  be  taught  how  to  sit  at  study. 


228  THE  SPECIAL  SENSES. 

\PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  does  a  laundress  test  the  temperature  of  her  flat  iron  by 
holding  it  near  her  cheek  ? 

2.  When  we  are  cold,  why  do  we  spread  the  palms  of  our  hands 
before  the  fire? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  a  "  furred  tongue  "  ? 

4.  Why  has  sand  or  sulphur  no  taste  ? 

5.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  word  palatable? 

6.  Why  does  a  cold  in  the  head  injure  the  flavor  of  our  coffee  ? 

7.  Name  some  so-called  flavors  that  are  really  sensations  of  touch. 

8.  What  is  the  object  of  the  hairs  in  the  nostrils? 

9.  What  use  does  the  nose  subserve  in  the  process  of  respiration  ? 

10.  Why  do  we  sometimes  hold  the  nose  when  we  take  unpleasant 
medicine  ? 

11.  Why  was  the  nose  placed  over  the  mouth? 

12.  Describe  how  the  hand  is  adapted  to  be  the  instrument  of  touch  ? 

13.  Besides  being  the  organ  of  taste,  what  use  does  the  tongue  sub- 
serve? 

14.  Why  is  not  the  act  of  tasting  complete  until  we  swallow? 

15.  Why  do  all  things  have  the  same  flavor  when  one's  tongue  is 
"  furred  "  by  fever  ? 

16.  Which  sense  is  the  more  useful — hearing  or  sight  ? 

17.  Which  coat  is  the  white  of  the  eye  ? 

18.  What  makes  the  difference  in  the  color  of  eyes  ? 

19.  Why  do  we  snuff  the   air  when  we  wish  to  obtain  a  distinct 
smell  ? 

20.  Why  do  red-hot  iron  and  frozen  mercury  (—40°)  produce  the  same 
sensation  ? 

21.  Why  can  an  elderly  person  drink  tea  which  to  a  child  would  be 
unbearably  hot  ? 

22.  Why  does  an  old  man  hold  his  paper  so  far  from  his  eyes  ? 

23.  Would  you  rather  be  punished  on  the  tips  of  your  fingers  than  on 
the  palm  of  your  hand  ? 

24.  What  is  the  object  of  the  eyebrows  ?    Are  the  hairs  straight  ? 

25.  What  is  the  use  of  winking  ? 

26.  When  you  wink,  do  the  eyelids  touch  at  once  along  their  whole 
length?     \Vhy? 


PRACTICAL  QUESTION. 

27.  How  many  rows  of  hairs  are  there  in  the  eyebrows? 

28.  Do  all  nations  have  eyes  of  the  same  shape  ? 

29.  Why  does  snuff- taking  cause  a  flow  of  tears  ? 

30.  Why  does  a  fall  cause  one  to  "  see  stars  "  ? 

31.  Why  can  we  not  see  with  the  nose,  or  smell  with  the  eyes  ? 

32.  What  causes  the  roughness  of  a  cat's  tongue  ? 

33.  Is  the  cuticle  essential  to  touch  ? 

34.  Can  one  tickle  himself  ? 

35.  Why  does  a  bitter  taste  often  produce  vomiting  ? 

36.  Is  there  any  danger  in  looking  "  cross  eyed  "  for  fun  ? 

37.  Should  school-room  desks  face  a  window  ? 

38  Why  do  we  look  at  a  person  to  whom  we  are  listening  atten- 
tively ? 

39.  Do  we  really  feel  with  our  fingers  ? 

40.  Is  the  eye  a  perfect  sphere  ?    (See  Fig.  61.) 

41.  How  often  do  we  wink  ? 

42.  Why  is  the  interior  of  a  telescope  or  microscope  often  painted 
black  V 

43.  What  is  "  the  apple  of  the  eye  "  ? 

44.  What  form  of  glasses  do  old  people  require? 

45.  Should  we  ever  wash  our  ears  with  cold  water? 

46.  What  is  the  object  of  the  winding  passages  in  the  nose  ? 

47.  Can  a  smoker  tell  in  the  dark,  whether   or   not   his  cigar   is 
lighted? 

48.  Will  a  nerve  re-unite  after  it  has  been  cut  ? 

49.  Will  the  sight  give  us  an  idea  of  solidity  ?  * 

*  "  A  case  occurred  a  few  years  ago,  in  London,  where  a  friend  of  my  own  per- 
formed an  operation  upon  a  young  woman  who  had  been  born  blind,  and,  though  an 
attempt  had  been  made  in  early  years  to  cure  her,  it  had  failed.  She  was  able  just  to 
distinguish  large  objects,  the  general  shadow,  as  it  were,  without  any  distinct  per- 
ception of  form,  and  to  distinguish  light  from  darkness.  She  could  work  well  with 
her  needle  by  the  touch,  and  could  use  her  scissors  and  bodkin  and  other  implements 
by  the  training  of  her  hand,  so  to  speak,  alone.  Well,  my  friend  happened  to  see 
her,  and  he  examined  her  eyes,  and  told  her  that  he  thought  he  could  get  her  sight 
restored  ;  at  any  rate,  it  was  worth  a  trial.  The  operation  succeeded  ;  and,  being  a 
man  of  intelligence  and  quite  aware  of  the  interest  of  such  a  case,  he  carefully 
studied  and  observed  it ;  and  he  completely  confirmed  all  that  had  been  previously 
laid  down  by  the  experience  of  similar  cases.  There  was  one  little  incident  which 
will  give  you  an  idea  of  the  education  which  is  required  for  what  you  would  suppose 
is  a  thing  perfectly  simple  and  obvious.  She  could  not  distinguish  by  sight  the 
things  that  she  was  perfectly  familiar  with  by  the  touch,  at  least  when  they  were  first 
presented  to  her  eyes.  She  could  not  recognize  even  a  pair  of  scissors.  Now,  you 


230  THE  SPECIAL  SENSES. 

50.  Why  can  a  skillful  surgeon  determine  the  condition  of  the  brain 
and  other  internal  organs  by  examining  the  interior  of  the  eye  ?  * 

51.  Is  there  any  truth  in  the  idea  that  the  image  of  the  murderer  can 
be  seen  in  the  eye  of  the  dead  victim  ? 

would  have  supposed  that  a  pair  of  scissors,  of  all  things  in  the  world,  having  been 
continually  used  hy  her,  and  their  form  having  become  perfectly  familiar  to  her 
hands,  would  have  been  most  readily  recognized  by  her  sight;  and  yet  she  did  not 
know  what  they  were;  she  had  not  an  idea  until  she  was  told,  and  then  she  laughed, 
as  she  said,  at  her  own  stupidity.  No  stupidity  at  all ;  she  had  never  learned  it,  and 
it  was  one  of  those  things  which  she  could  not  know  without  learning.  One  of  the 
earliest  cases  of  this  kind  was  related  by  the  celebrated  Cheselden,  a  surgeon  of  the 
early  part  of  last  century.  Cheselden  relates  how  a  youth  just  in  this  condition  had 
been  accustomed  to  play  with  a  cat  and  a  dog  ;  but  for  some  time  after  he  attained 
his  sight  he  never  could  tell  which  was  which,  and  used  to  be  continually  making 
mistakes.  One  day,  being  rather  ashamed  of  himself  for  having  called  the  cat  the 
dog,  he  took  up  the  cat  in  his  arms  and  looked  at  her  very  attentively  for  some  time, 
stroking  her  all  the  while  ;  and  in  this  way  he  associated  the  impression  derived 
from  the  touch,  and  made  himself  master  (so  to  speak)  of  the  whole  idea  of  the 
animal.  He  then  put  the  cat  down,  saying,  'Now,  puss,  I  sHall  know  you  another 
time.'  " — Carpenter. 

*  This  is  done  by  means  of  an  instrument  called  the  ophthalmoscope.  Light  is 
thrown  into  the  eye  with  a  concave  mirror,  and  the  interior  of  the  organ  examined 
with  a  lens. 


CONCLUSION. 


~T  rALUE  of  Health. — The  body  is  the  instrument 
V  which  the  mind  uses.  If  it  be  dulled  or  nicked, 
the  effect  of  the  best  labor  will  be  impaired.  The 
grandest  gifts  of  mind  or  fortune  are  comparatively 
valueless  unless  there  be  a  healthy  body  to  use  and 
enjoy  them.  The  beggar,  sturdy  and  brave  with  his 
out-door  life,  is  really  happier  than  the  rich  man  in 
his  palace  with  the  gout  to  twinge  him  amid  his 
pleasures.  The  day  has  gone  by  when  delicacy  is 
considered  an  element  of  beauty.  Weakness  is 
timid  and  irresolute ;  strength  is  full  of  force  and 
energy.  Weakness  walks  or  creeps  ;  strength  speeds 
the  race,  wins  the  goal,  and  rejoices  in  the  victory. 

False  Ideas  of  Disease. — It  was  formerly  supposed 
that  diseases  were  caused  by  evil  spirits,  who  en- 
tered the  body  and  deranged  its  action.  Incanta- 
tions, spells,  etc.,  were  resorted  to  in  order  to  drive 
them  out.  By  others,  disease  was  thought  to  come 
arbitrarily,  or  as  a  special  visitation  of  an  over-ruling 
power.  Hence,  it  was  to  be  removed  by  fasting  and 
prayer.  Modern  science  teaches  us  that  disease  is 
not  a  thing,  but  a  state.  When  our  food  is  properly 
assimilated,  the  waste  matter  promptly  excreted, 
and  all  the  organs  work  in  harmony,  we  are  well  ; 


232  CONCLUSION. 

when  any  derangement  of  these  functions  occurs, 
we  are  sick.  Sickness  is  discord,  as  health  is  con- 
cord. If  we  abuse  or  misuse  any  instrument,  we 
impair  its  ability  to  produce  a  perfect  harmony.  A 
suffering  body  is  simply  the  penalty  of  violated 
law. 

Prevention  of  Disease. — Doubtless  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  ills  which  now  afflict  and  rob  us  of  so 
much  time  and  pleasure  might  easily  be  avoided.  A 
proper  knowledge  and  observance  of  hygienic  laws 
would  greatly  lessen  the  number  of  such  diseases  as 
consumption,  catarrh,  gout,  rheumatism,  dyspepsia, 
scrofula,  etc.  There  are  parts  of  England  where 
one-half  the  children  die  before  they  are  five  years 
old.  Every  physiologist  knows  that  at  least  nine- 
tenths  of  these  lives  could  be  saved  by  an  observance 
of  the  simple  laws  of  health.  Professor  Bennet,  in  a 
lecture  at  Edinburgh,  estimated  that  100,000  persons 
die  annually  in  Great  Britain  from  causes  easily 
preventable. 

With  the  advance  of  science,  the  causes  of  many 
diseases  have  been  determined.  Vaccination  has 
been  found  to  prevent  or  mitigate  the  ravages  of 
small-pox.  Scurvy,  formerly  so  fatal  among  sailors 
that  it  was  deemed  "  a  mysterious  infliction  of 
Divine  Justice  against  which  man  strives  in  vain," 
is  now  entirely  avoided  by  the  use  of  vegetables  or 
lime-juice.  Cholera,  whose  approach  still  strikes 
dread,  and  for  which  there  is  no  known  specific,  is 
but  the  penalty  for  filthy  streets,  bad  drainage,  and 
over-crowded  tenements,  and  may  be  controlled,  if 
not  prevented,  by  suitable  sanitary  measures.  It 
was,  no  doubt,  the  intention  that  we  should  wear  out 


CURE  OF  DISEASE.  233 

by  the  general  decay  of  all  the  organs,*  rather  than 
by  the  giving  out  of  any  single  part,  and  that  all 
should  work  together  harmoniously  until  the  vital 
force  is  exhausted. 

Cure  of  Disease. — The  first  step  in  the  cure  of  any 
disease  is  to  obey  the  law  of  health  which  has  been 
violated.  If  medicine  be  taken,  it  is  not  to  destroy 
the  disease,  since  that  is  not  a  thing  to  be  destroyed, 
but  to  hold  the  deranged  action  in  check  while  na- 
ture repairs  the  injury,  and  again  brings  the  system 
into  harmonious  movement.  This  tendency  of  na- 
ture is  our  chief  reliance.  The  best  physicians  are 
coming  to  have  diminished  confidence  in  medicine 
itself,  and  to  place  greater  dependence  upon  sanitary 
and  hygienic  measures,  and  the  efforts  which  nature 
always  makes  to  repair  injuries  and  soothe  dis- 
ordered action.  They  endeavor  only  to  give  her  a 
fair  chance,  and  sometimes  to  assist  her  by  the  in- 
telligent employment  of  proper  medicines.  The  in- 
discriminate use  of  patent  nostrums  and  sovereign 
remedies  of  whose  constituents  we  know  nothing, 
and  by  which  powerful  drugs  are  imbibed  at  hap- 
hazard, cannot  be  too  greatly  deprecated,  f  When 

*  "  So  long  as  the  phenomena  of  waste  and  repair  are  in  harmony— so  long,  in 
other  words,  as  the  builder  follows  the  scavenger— so  long  man  exists  in  integrity 
and  repair— just,  indeed,  as  houses  exist.  Derange  nutrition,  and  at  once  degenera- 
tion, or  rather  let  us  say,  alteration  begins.  Alas  !  that  we  are  so  ignorant  that  there 
are  many  things  about  our  house,  which,  seeing  them  weaken,  we  know  not  how  to 
strengthen.  About  the  brick  and  the  mortar,  the  frame  and  the  rafters,  we  are  not 
unlearned ;  but  within  are  many  complexities,  many  chinks  and  crannies,  full  in 
themselves  of  secondary  chinks  and  crannies,  and  these  so  small,  so  deep,  so  re- 
cessed, that  it  happens  every  day  that  the  destroyer  settles  himself  in  some  place  so 
obscure,  that,  while  he  kills,  he  laughs  at  defiance.  You  or  1  meet  with  an  accident 
in  our  watch.  We  consult  the  watchmaker,  and  he  repairs  the  injury.  If  we  were 
all  that  watchmakers,  like  ourselves,  sh'ould  be,  a  man  could  be  made  to  keep  time 
until  he  died  from  old  age  or  annihilating  accident.  This  I  firmly  and  fully  believe." 
—Odd  Hours  of  a  Physician. 

t  A  traveler  in  Africa  states  that  be  was  surprised  and  delighted  to  find,  in  the 


234  CONCLUSION. 

one  needs  medicine,  he  needs  also  a  competent  phy- 
sician to  advise  its  use. 

Death  and  Decay. — By  a  mystery  we  cannot  under- 
stand, life  is  linked  with  death,  and  out  of  the  decay 
of  our  bodies  they,  day  by  day,  spring  afresh.  At 
last  the  vital  force  which  has  held  death  and  decay 
in  bondage,  and  compelled  them  to  minister  to  our 
growth,  and  serve  the  needs  of  our  life,  faints  and 
yields  the  struggle.  These  powers  which  have  so 
long  time  been  our  servants,  gather  about  our  dying 
couch,  and  their  last  offices  usher  us  into  the  new 
life  and  the  grander  possibilities  of  the  world  to 
come.  This  last  birth,  we  who  see  the  fading,  not 
the  dawning,  life,  call  death. 

"  O  Father!  grant  Thy  love  divine, 
To  make  these  mystic  temples  Thine, 
When  wasting  age  and  wearying  strife 
Have  sapp'd  the  leaning  walls  of  life  ; 
When  darkness  gathers  over  all, 
And  the  last  tottering  pillars  fall, 
Take  the  poor  dust  Thy  mercy  warms, 
And  mold  it  into  heavenly  forms." 

Holmes. 


possession  of  the  chief  medicineman  of  one  of  the  interior  tribes  a  carefully  pre- 
served copy  of  the  New  York  Tribune.  On  inquiry,  he  found  that  it  was  exceedingly 
valuable,  as  a  minute  fragment  of  it  either  rubbed  on  the  outside  or  taken  inwardly 
was  a  sovereign  remedy  for  as  long  a  list  of  diseases  as  ever  graced  the  advertisement 
of  an  American  pain-killer.  The  mania  which  some  people  possess  for  tippling  with 
patent  medicines  is  no  more  sensible  than  the  trust  of  the  poor  savage  in  a  .New  York 
iaily. 


APPENDIX. 


HINTS 

ABOUT 

THE     SICK-ROOM. 


"\  SICK-ROOM  should  be  the  lightest  and  cheeriest  in  the  house. 
/*-  A  small,  close,  dark  bedroom  or  a  recess  is  bad  enough  for  one 
in  health,  but  unendurable  for  a  sick  person.  In  a  case  of  fever,  and 
in  many  acute  diseases,  it  should  be  remote  from  the  noise  of  the 
family ;  but  when  one  is  recovering  from  an  accident,  and  in  all 
attacks  where  quiet  is  not  needed,  the  patient  may  be  where  he  can 
amuse  himself  by  watching  the  movements  of  the  household,  or  look- 
ing out  upon  the  street. 

The  ventilation  must  be  thorough.  Bad  air  will  poison  the  sick  and 
the  well  alike.  A  fireplace  is,  therefore,  desirable.  Windows  should 
open  easily.  By  carefully  protecting  the  patient  with  extra  blankets, 
the  room  may  be  frequently  aired.  If  there  be  no  direct  draught,  much 
may  be  done  to  change  the  air,  by  simply  swinging  an  outer  door  to 
and  fro  many  times. 

A  bare  floor,  with  strips  of  carpet  here  and  there  to  deaden  noise,  is 
cleanest,  and  keeps  the  air  freest  from  dust.  Cane-bottomed  chairs 
are  preferable  to  upholstered  ones.  All  unnecessary  furniture  should 
be  removed  out  of  the  way.  A  straw  bed  or  a  mattress  is  better  than 
feathers.  The  bed-hangings,  lace  curtains,  etc.,  should  be  taken  down. 
Creaking  hinges  should  be  oiled.  Sperm  candles  are  better  than 
kerosene  lamps. 

Never  whisper  in  a  sick-room.  All  necessary  conversation  rhould  be 
carried  on  in  the  usual  tone  of  voice.  Do  not  call  a  physician 
unnecessarily,  but  if  one  be  employed  obey  his  directions  implicitly. 


238  WHAT  TO  DO 

Never  give  nostrums  over-officious  friends  may  suggest.  Do  not 
allow  visitors  to  see  the  patient,  except  it  be  necessary.  Never  bustle 
about  the  room,  nor  go  on  tip-toe,  but  move  in  a  quiet,  ordinary  way. 
Do  not  keep  the  bottles  iti  the  continued  sight  of  the  sick  person. 
Never  let  drinking-water  stand  in  the  room. 

Do  not  raise  the  patient's  head  to  drink,  but  have  a  cup  with  a  long 
spout,  or  use  a  bent  tube,  or  even  a  straw.  Do  not  tempt  the  appe- 
tite when  it  craves  no  food.  Bathe  frequently,  but  let  the  physician 
prescribe  the  method.  Give  written  directions  to  the  watchers.  Have 
all  medicines  carefully  marked.  Remove  all  soiled  clothing,  etc.,  at 
once  from  the  room.  Change  the  linen  much  oftener  than  in  health. 
When  you  wish  to  change  the  sheets,  and  the  patient  is  unable  to  rise, 
roll  the  under  sheet  tightly  lengthwise  to  the  middle  of  the  bed  ;  put 
on  the  clean  sheet,  with  half  its  width  folded  up,  closely  to  the  other 
roll  ;  lift  the  patient  on  to  the  newly-made  part,  remove  the  soiled 
sheet,  and  th.  n  spread  out  the  clean  one. 


DISINFECTANTS. 

An  excellent  disinfectant  may  be  made  by  dissolving  in  a  pail  of 
water  any  one  of  the  three  following :  (i)  a  fluid  ounce  of  carbolic 
acid  ;  (2)  half  an  ounce  of  permanganate  of  potash ;  (3)  a  pound  of 
green  vitriol.  The  solution  of  the  first  kind  may  be  sprinkled  on  the 
floor  or  on  the  bedding,  or  allowed  to  evaporate  in  the  room.  Bed- 
ding may  be  washed  in  the  solution  of  the  second  substance.  Ill 
odors  in  the  sick-room  will  be  instantly  removed  by  evaporating  a  few 
drops  of  carbolic  acid.  Vaults,  drains,  etc.,  may  be  purified  by  the 
solution  of  the  third  kind.  Chloride  of  lime  may  be  used  for  the  same 
purpose. 


WHAT    TO     DO    TILL     THE    DOCTOR 
COMES. 

Burns. — When  a  person's  clothes  catch  fire,  quickly  lay^im  on  the 
ground,  wrap  him  in  a  coat,  mat,  shawl,  carpet,  or  in  his  own  clothes, 
as  best  you  can  to  extinguish  the  fire.  Pour  on  plenty  of  water  till 
the  half-burned  clothing  is  cooled.  Then  carry  the  suffe/er  to  a  warm 


TILL  THE  DOCTOR  COMES.  239 

room,  lay  him  on  a  table  or  a  carpeted  floor,  and  with  a  sharp  knife  or 
scissors  remove  his  clothing. 

The  treatment  of  a  burn  consists  in  protecting  from  the  air.*  An 
excellent  remedy  is  to  apply  soft  cloths  kept  wet  with  sweet  oil,  or 
cold  -water  which  contains  all  the  "  cooking  soda "  that  it  will  dissolve. 
Afterward  dress  the  wound  with  carbolic  acid  salve.  Wrap  a  dry 
bandage  upon  the  outside.  Then  remove  the  patient  to  a  bed  and 
warmly  cover.f  Apply  cold  water  to  a  small  burn  till  the  smart 
ceases,  and  then  cover  with  ointment.  Do  not  remove  the  dressings 
until  they  become  stiff  and  irritating ;  then  take  them  from  a  part  at  a 
time  ;  dress  and  cover  again  quickly. 

Cuts,  Wounds,  etc. — The  method  of  stopping  the  bleeding  has 
been  described  on  page  126.  If  an  artery  is  severed,  a  physician 
should  be  called  at  once.  If  the  bleeding  is  not  profuse,  apply  cold 
water  until  it  ceases,  dry  the  skin,  draw  the  edges  of  the  wound  to- 
gether, and  secure  them  by  strips  of  adhesive  plaster.  Protect  with 
an  outer  bandage.  This  dressing  should  remain  for  several  days.  In 
the  meantime  wet  it  frequently  with  cold  water  to  subdue  inflamma- 
tion. When  suppuration  begins,  wash  occasionally  with  tepid  water 
and  Castile  soap. 

Dr.  Woodbridge,  of  New  York,  in  a  recent  address,  gave  the  follow- 
ing directions  as  to  "  What  to  do  in  case  of  a  sudden  wound  when  the 
surgeon  is  not  at  hand."  "  An  experienced  person  would  naturally 
close  the  lips  of  the  wound  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  apply  a  band- 
age. If  the  wound  is  bleeding  freely,  but  no  artery  is  spouting  blood, 
the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  wash  it  with  water  at  an  ordinary  tem- 
perature. To  every  pint  of  water  add  either  five  grains  of  corrosive 
sublimate,  or  two  and  a  half  teaspoonfuls  of  carbolic  acid.  If  the  acid 
is  used,  add  two  table-spoonfuls  of  glycerine,  to  prevent  its  irritating 
the  wound.  If  there  is  neither  of  these  articles  in  the  house,  add  four 
table-spoonfuls  of  borax  to  the  water.  Wash  the  wound,  close  it,  and 
apply  a  compress  of  a  folded  square  of  cotton  or  linen.  Wet  it  in  the 

*  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  salves  will  "  draw  out  the  fire  "  of  a  burn, 
or  heal  a  bruise  or  cut.  The  vital  force  must  unite  the  divided  tissue  by  the  deposit 
of  material,  and  the  formation  of  new  cells. 

t  If  a  burn  be  near  a  joint  or  on  the  face,  even  if  small,  let  a  doctor  see  it,  and  do 
not  be  in  any  hurry  about  having  it  healed.  Remember  that  with  all  the  care  and 
skill  which  can  be  used,  contractions  will  sometimes  take  place.  The  danger  to  life 
from  a  burn  or  scald  is  not  in  proportion  to  its  severity,  but  to  its  extent- that  is,  a 
small  part,  such  as  a  hand  or  a  foot  or  a  face,  may  be  burned  so  deeply  as  to  cripple  it 
for  life,  and  yet  not  much  endanger  the  general  health ;  but  a  slight  amount  of  burn- 
ing, a  mere  scorching,  over  two-thirds  of  the  body,  may  prove  fatal.— Hoje. 


240  WHAT   TO  DO 

solution  used  for  washing  the  wound,  and  bandage  down  quickly  and 
firmly.  If  the  bleeding  is  profuse,  a  sponge  dipped  in  very  hot  water 
and  wrung  out  in  a  dry  cloth  should  be  applied  as  quickly  as  possible. 
If  this  is  not  available,  use  ice,  or  cloths  wrung  out  in  ice  water.  If  a 
large  vein  or  artery  is  spouting,  it  must  be  stopped  at  once  by  com- 
pression. This  may  be  done  by  a  rubber  tube  wound  around  the  arm 
tightly  above  the  elbow  or  above  the  knee,  where  the  pulse  is  felt  to 
beat ;  or  an  improvised  '  tourniquet '  may  be  used.  A  hard  apple  or 
a  stone  is  placed  in  a  folded  handkerchief,  and  rolled  firmly  in  place. 
This  bandage  is  applied  so  that  the  hard  object  rests  on  the  point 
where  the  artery  beats,  and  is  then  tied  loosely  around  the  arm.  A 
stick  is  thrust  through  the  loose  bandage  and  turned  till  the  flow  of 
blood  ceases." 

Bleeding  from  the  Nose  is  rarely  dangerous,  and  often  beneficial. 
When  it  becomes  necessary  to  stop  it,  sit  upright  and  compress  the 
nostrils  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  or  with  the  thumb  press 
upward  upon  the  upper  lip.  A  piece  of  ice,  a  snow-ball,  or  a  com- 
press wet  with  cold  water  may  be  applied  to  the  back  of  the  neck. 

A  Sprain  is  often  more  painful  and  dangerous  than  a  dislocation. 
Wrap  the  injured  part  in  flannels  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  and  cover 
with  a  dry  bandage,  or,  better,  with  oiled  silk.  Liniments  and  stimu- 
lating applications  are  injurious  in  the  first  stages,  but  useful  when 
the  inflammation  is  subdued.  Do  not  let  the  limb  hang  down.  It  must 
be  kept  quiet,  even  after  all  pain  has  ceased.  If  used  too  quickly, 
dangerous  consequences  may  ensue. 

Diarrhea,  Cholera  Infantum,  etc.,  are  often  caused  by  eating 
indigestible  food  or  by  checking  of  the  perspiration ;  but  more  fre- 
quently by  peculiar  conditions  of  the  atmosphere,  especially  in  large 
cities.  If  the  limbs  are  cold,  give  a  hot  bath,  and  rub  thoroughly. 
If  possible,  go  to  bed  and  lie  quietly  on  the  back.  Rest  is  better  than  medi- 
rine.  If  there  be  pain,  apply  repeatedly  to  the  abdomen  flannels 
wrung  out  of  hot  water.  If  medicine  is  needed,  take  fifteen  drops  of 
peppermint  and  thirty  of  paregoric  in  a  wine-glass  of  warm  water ;  or 
an  adult  may  take  twenty  drops  of  spirits  of  camphor  and  thirty  to 
forty  drops  of  laudanum.  Laudanum  should  rarely  be  given  to  an 
infant,  except  by  a  physician's  order.  Eat  no  fruit,  vegetables,  pastry, 
or  pork.  If  much  thirst  exist,  give  small  pieces. of  ice,  or  cold  tea  or 
toast-water. 

Croup. — Send  at  once  for  a  doctor.  Induce  vomiting  by  syrup  of 
ipecac  or  mustard  and  water.  Put  the  feet  in  a  hot  bath.  Apply  hot 
fomentations  rapidly  r&newed  to  the  chest  and  throat. 


TILL  THE  DOCTOR  COMES.  241 

Sore  Throat. — Wrap  the  neck  in  a  wet  bandage,  and  cover  with 
red  flannel  or  a  woolen  stocking.  Gargle  the  throat  frequently  with 
a  solution  of  a  tea  spoonful  of  salt  in  a  pint  of  water,  or  thirty  grains 
of  chlorate  of  potash  in  a  wine-glass  of  water. 

Fits,  Apoplexy,  Epilepsy,  etc, — Loosen  the  clothing,  and  raise 
the  head  and  shoulders,  but  do  not  bend  the  head  forward  on  the 
neck.  Apply  cold  to  the  head,  and  heat  to  the  feet.  Follow  with  an 
emetic.  In  a  child,  a  full  hot  bath  is  excellent.  When  there  are  con- 
vulsions, prevent  the  patient  from  injuring  himself;  especially  put 
something  in  his  mouth  to  keep  him  from  biting  his  tongue. 

Toothache  and  Earache. — Insert  in  the  hollow  tooth,  or  in  the 

ear,  cotton  wet  with  laudanum,  spirits  of  camphor,  or  chloroform. 
When  the  nerve  is  exposed,  wet  it  with  creosote  or  carbolic  acid. 
Hot  cloths  or  a  hot  brick  wrapped  in  cloth  and  held  to  the  face  will 
often  relieve  the  toothache.  In  a  similar  manner  treat  the  ear,  wetting 
the  cloth  in  hot  water,  and  letting  the  vapor  pass  into  the  ear. 

Choking. — Ordinarily  a  smart  blow  between  the  shoulders,  causing 
a  compression  of  the  chest  and  a  sudden  expulsion  of  the  air  from  the 
lungs,  will  throw  out  the  substance.  If  the  person  can  swallow,  and 
the  object  be  small,  give  plenty  of  bread  or  potato,  and  water  to  wash 
it  down.  Press  upon  the  tongue  with  a  spoon,  when,  perhaps,  you 
may  see  the  offending  body,  and  draw  it  out  with  a  blunt  pair  of  scis- 
sors. If  neither  of  these  remedies  avail,  give  an  emetic  of  syrup  of 
ipecac  or  mustard  and  warm  water. 

Frost  Bites  are  frequently  so  sudden  that  one  is  not  aware  when 
they  occur.  In  Canada  it  is  not  uncommon  for  persons  meeting  in 
the  street  to  say,  "  Mind,  sir,  your  nose  looks  whitish."  The  blood 
cools  and  runs  slowly,  and  the  blood-vessels  become  choked  and 
swollen.  Keep  from  the  heat.  Rub  the  part  quickly  with  snow,  if 
necessary  for  hours,  till  the  natural  color  is  restored.  If  one  is 
benumbed  with  cold,  take  him  into  a  cold  room,  remove  the  wet 
clothes,  rub  the  body  dry,  cover  with  blankets,  and  give  a  little  warm 
tea  or  other  suitable  drink.  On  recovering,  let  him  be  brought  to 
a  fire  gradually.* 

Fevers,  and  many  acute  diseases,  are  often  preceded  by  a  loss  of 
appetite,  headache,  shivering,  "pains  in  the  bones,"  indisposition  to 

*  If  you  are  caught  in  a  snow-storm,  look  for  a  snow-bank  in  the  lee  of  a  hill,  or 
a  wood  out  of  the  wind,  or  a  hollow  in  the  plain  filled  with  snow.  Scrape  out  a 
hole  big  enough  to  creep  into,  and  the  drifting  snow  will  keep  you  warm.  Men  and 
animals  have  been  preserved  after  days  of  such  imprisonment  Remember  that  if 
you  give  way  to  sleep  in  the  open  field,  you  will  never  awake, 


242  WHAT  TO  DO 

work,  etc.  In  such  cases,  sponge  with  tepid  water,  and  rub  the  body 
till  all  aglow.  Go  to  bed,  place  hot  bricks  to  the  feet,  take  nothing 
but  a  little  gruel  or  beef  tea,  and  drink  moderately  of  warm,  cream-of- 
tartar  water.  If  you  do  not  feel  better  the  next  morning,  call  a  phy- 
sician. If  that  be  impossible,  take  a  dose  of  castor-oil  or  Epsom  salt. 

Sun-stroke  is  a  sudden  prostration  caused  by  intense  heat.  The 
same  effect  is  produced  by  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun  and  the  fierce 
fire  of  a  furnace.  When  a  person  falls  under  such  circumstances, 
place  your  hand  on  his  chest.  If  the  skin  be  cool  and  moist,  it  is  not 
a  sun-stroke;  but  if  it  be  dry  and  "biting  hot,"  there  can  be  no  mis- 
take. Time  is  now  precious.  At  once  carry  the  sufferer  to  the  nearest 
pump  or  hydrant,  and  dash  cold  water  on  the  head  and  chest  until 
consciousness  is  restored. — Dr.  H.  C.  Wood. 

To  prevent  sun-stroke,  wear  a  porous  hat,  and  in  the  top  of  it  place 
a  wet  handkerchief;  also  drink  freely  of  water,  not  ice  cold,  to  induce 
abundant  perspiration. 

Asphyxia,  or  apparent  death,  whether  produced  by  drowning,  suf- 
focation, bad  air,  or  coal  gas,  requires  very  similar  treatment.  Send 
at  once  for  blankets,  dry  clothing,  and  a  physician.  Treat  the  sufferer 
upon  the  spot,  if  the  weather  be  not  too  unfavorable. 

1.  Loosen  the  clothing  about  the  neck  and  chest. 

2.  Turn  the  patient   on   his  face,  open   the   mouth,  draw   out  the 
tongue,  and  cleanse  the  nostrils,  so  as  to  clear  the  air-passages. 

3.  Place  the  patient  on  his  back,  grasp  his  arms  firmly  above  the 
elbows,  and  pull  them  gently  upward  until  they  meet  over  the  head,  in 
order  to  draw  air  into  the  lungs.    Then  bring  the  arms  back  by  the  side, 
to  expel  the  air.     Repeat  the  process  about  fifteen  times  per  minute. 
Alternate  pressure  upon  the  chest,  and  blowing  air  into  the  mouth 
through  a  quill  or  with  a  pair  of  bellows,  may  aid  your  efforts.     Excite 
the  nostrils  with  snuff  or  smelling  salts,  or  by  passing  hartshorn  under 
the  nose.     Do  not  cease  effort  while  there  is  hope.     Life  has  been 
restored  after  five  hours  of  suspended  animation. 

4.  When  respiration  is  established,  wrap  the  patient  in  dry,  warm 
clothes,  and  rub  the  limbs  under  the  blankets  or  over  the  dry  clothing 
energetically  toward  the  heart.     Apply  heated  flannels,  bottles  of  hot 
water,  etc.,  to  the  limbs,  and  mustard  plasters*  to  the  chest. 

Foreign  Bodies  in  the  Ear.— Insects  may  be  killed  by  dropping 
a  little  sweet  oil  into  the  ear.  Beans,  peas,  matches,  etc.,  may  gener- 

*  The  best  mustard  poultice  is  the  paper  plaster  now  sold  by  every  druggist.  It 
is  always  ready,  and  can  be  carried  by  a  traveler.  It  has  only  to  be  dipped  hi 
water,  and  applied  at  once. 


TILL  THE  DOCTOR  COMES.  243 

ally  be  removed  by  caittiously  syringing  the  ear  out  with  tepid  water. 
Do  not  use  much  force  lest  the  tympanum  be  injured.  If  this  fail,  dry 
the  ear,  stick  the  end  of  a  little  linen  swab  into  thick  glue,  let  the 
patient  lie  on  one  side,  put  this  into  the  ear  until  it  touches  the  sub- 
stance, keep  it  there  three-quarters  of  an  hour  while  it  hardens,  and 
then  draw  them  all  out  together.  Be  careful  that  the  glue  does  not  touch 
the  skin  at  any  point,  and  that  you  are  at  work  upon  the  right  ear. 
Children  often  deceive  one  as  to  the  ear  which  is  affected. 

Foreign  Bodies  in  the  Nose,  such  as  beans,  cherry-pits,  etc., 
may  frequently  be  removed  by  closing  the  opposite  nostril,  and  then 
blowing  into  the  child's  mouth  forcibly.  The  air,  unable  to  escape 
except  through  the  other  nostril,  will  sweep  the  obstruction  before  it. 


244  ANTIDOTES  TO  POISONS. 

ANTIDOTES    TO     POISONS. 

Acids  :  Nitric  (aqua  fortis),  hydrochloric  (muriatic),  sulphuric  (oil  of 
vitriol),  oxalic,  etc. — Drink  a  little  water  to  weaken  the  acid,  or,  still 
better,  take  strong  soap-suds.  Stir  some  magnesia  in  water,  and 
drink  freely.  If  the  magnesia  be  not  at  hand,  use  chalk,  soda,  lime, 
whiting,  soap,  or  even  knock  a  piece  of  plaster  from  the  wall,  and 
scraping  off  the  white  outside  coat  pound  it  fine,  mix  with  milk  or' 
water,  and  drink  at  once.  Follow  with  warm  water,  or  flax-seed  tea. 

Alkalies :  Potash,  soda,  ley,  ammonia  (hartshorn). — Drink  weak  vin- 
egar or  lemon  juice.  Follow  with  castor  or  linseed  oil,  or  thick 
cream. 

Antimony :  Antimonial  Wine,  tartar  emetic,  etc. — Drink  strong, 
green  tea,  and  in  the  mean  time  chew  the  dry  leaves.  The  direct  anti- 
dote is  a  solution  of  nut-gall  or  oak -bark. 

Arsenic  :  Cobalt,  Sck&Us  green,  Jly-pou'der,  ratsbane,  etc. — Give  plenty 
of  milk,  -whites  of  eggs,  or  induce  vomiting  by  mustard  and  warm 
water,  or  even  soap-suds. 

Bite  of  a  Snake  or  a  Mad  Dog1.  —Tie  a  bandage  above  the 
wound,  if  on  a  limb.  Wash  the  bite  thoroughly,  and,  if  possible,  let  the 
person  suck  it  strongly.  Rub  some  lunar  caustic  or  potash  in  the 
wound,  or  heat  the  point  of  a  small  poker  or  a  steel-sharpener  white 
hot,  and  press  it  into  the  bite  for  a  moment.  It  will  scarcely  cause 
pain,  and  will  be  effectual  in  arresting  the  absorption  of  the  poison, 
unless  a  vein  has  been  struck.  \ 

Copper:  Sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol),  acetate  of  copper  (verdigris).     * 
— Take  whites  of  eggs  or  soda.     Use  milk  freely. 

Laudanum  :  Opium,  paregoric,  soothing  cordial,  soothing  syntp,  etc. —     \ 
Give  an  emetic  at   once    of  syrup   of  ipecac,  or  mustard  and   warm 
water,  etc.     After  vomiting,  use  strong  coffee  freely.    Keep  the  patient 
aivake  by  pinching,  pulling  the  hair,  walking  about,  dashing  water  in 
the  face,  and  any  expedient  possible. 

Lead:  White  lead,  acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead),  red  lead.  Give  an 
emetic  of  syrup  of  ipecac,  or  mustard  and  warm  water,  or  salt  and 
water.  Follow  with  a  dose  of  Epsom  salt. 

Matches :  Phosphorus. — Give  magnesia,  chalk,  whiting,  or  even 
flour  in  water,  and  follow  with  mucilaginous  drinks. 

Mercury  '  Calomel,  chloride  of  mercury  (corrosive  sublimate,  bug 
poison),  red  precipitate. — Drink  milk  copiously.  Take  the  whites  of 
eggs,  or  even  stir  flour  in  water,  and  use  freely. 


ANTIDOTES.  245 

Nitrate  Of  Silver  (lunar  caustic). — Give  salt  and  water,  and  follow 
with  castor-oil. 

Nitrate  of  Potash  (salpetre,  nitre). — Give  mustard  and  warm 
water,  or  syrup  of  ipecac.  Follow  with  flour  and  water,  and  cream  or 
sweet  oil. 

Pmssic  Acid  (oil  of  bitter  almonds),  cyanide  of  potassiiim.— Take  a 
tea-spoonful  of  hartshorn  in  a  pint  of  water.  Apply  smelling  salts 
to  the  nose,  and  dash  cold  water  in  the  face. 

Sting"  of  an  Insect. — Apply  a  little  hartshorn  or  spirits  of  cam- 
phor, or  soda  moistened  with  water,  or  a  paste  of  clean  earth  and 
saliva. 

Sulphate  Of  Iron  (green  vitriol). — Give  syrup  of  ipecac,  or  mus- 
tard and  warm  water,  or  any  convenient  emetic;  then  magnesia  and 
water. 


QUESTIONS   FOR    CLASS    USE. 


The  questions  include  the  notes.     The  figures  refer  to  the  pages. 


INTRODUCTION 

ILLUSTRATE  the  value  of  physiological  knowledge.  Why  should 
physiology  be  studied  in  youth?  When  are  our  habits  formed?  How 
do  habits  help  us?  Why  should  children  prize  the  lessons  of  expe- 
rience. How  does  Nature  punish  a  violation  of  her  laws?  Name 
some  of  Nature's  laws.  What  is  the  penalty  of  their  violation?  Name 
some  bad  habits  and  their  punishments.  Some  good  habits  and  their 
rewards.  How  do  the  young  ruin  their  health?  Compare  one's  con- 
stitution  with  a  deposit  in  the  bank.  Can  one  in  youth  lay  up  health 
as  he  can  money  for  middle  or  old  age?  (See  Conclusion^)  Is  not  the 
preservation  of  one's  health  a  moral  duty?  What  is  suicide  ? 


THE     SKELETON. 

How  many  bones  are  there  in  the  body?  Is  the  number  fixed? 
Is  the  length  of  the  different  bones  proportional  ?  What  is  an  organ  ? 
A  function  ?  Name  the  three  uses  of  the  bones.  Why  do  the  bones 
have  such  different  shapes?  Why  are  certain  bones  hollow?  Round  ? 
Illustrate. 

6.  What  is  the  composition  of  bone?     How  does  it  vary?     How 
can  you   remove   the   mineral   matter?     The   animal    matter?     Why 
is  a  burned  bone  white  and  porous?     What  is  the  use  of  each  of  the 
constituents  of  a  bone?     What  food  do  dogs  find  in  bones?    WThat  is 
"  bone  black  "  ? 

7.  What  is  ossification?    Why  are  not  the   bones   of  children   as 


THE  SKELETON.  247 

easily  broken  as  those  of  aged  persons?    Why  do  they  unite  so  much 
quicker?    What  are  the  fontanelles?    Describe  the  structure  of  a  bone. 

8.  What  is  the  object  of  the  filling?     Why  does  the  amount  vary  in 
different  parts  of  a  bone?     What  is  the  appearance  of  a  bone  seen 
through  a  microscope?     What  is  the  periosteum?     Is  a  bone   once 
removed  ever  restored  ? 

9.  What  are  the  lacunae?     The  Haversian  canals?     Why  so  called? 
Ans.  From  their  discoverer,  Havers.     Define  a  bone.*     What  occupies 
the  lacunse?-  Ans.  The  bone-cells  (osteoblasts).     How  do  bones  grow? 
Illustrate.     How  does  a  broken  bone  heal  ?     How   rapidly  is   bone 
produced  ?     Illustrate. 

10.  Objects  of  "splints  "  ?     Describe  how  a  joint  is  packed.     Lubri- 
cated.    How  are  the  bones  tied  together?     What  is  a  tissue?     Illus- 
trate. 

11.  Name  the  three  general  divisions  of  the  bones.     What  is  the 
object  of  the  skull  ?     Which  bone  is  movable?     How  is  the  lower  jaw 
hinged? 

12.  Describe  the  construction  of  the  skull.     What  is  a  suture?    Tell 
how  the  peculiar  form  and  structure  of  the  skull  adapt  it  for  its  use. 
Illustrate  the  impenetrability  of  the  skull.     Describe  the  experiment 
of  the  balls.     What  does  it  show  ? 

13.  What  two  cavities  are  in  the  trunk  ?     Name  its  principal  bones. 
Describe  the  spine.     What  is  the  object  of  the  processes  ?    Of  the 
pads?     Why  is  a  man  shorter  at  night  than  in  the  morning  ? 

14.  Describe  the  perfection  of  the  spine.     The  articulation  of  the 
skull  with  the  spine.     Why  is  the  atlas  so  called  ? 

15.  Describe  the  ribs.     What  is  the  natural  form  of  the  chest?    Why 
is  the  thorax  or  chest  made  in  separate  pieces?     How  does  the  oblique 
position  of  the  ribs  aid  in  respiration  ?     (See  note,  p.  80.) 

16.  How  do  the  hip-bones  give  solidity?     What  two  sets  of  limbs 
branch  from  the  trunk  ?     State  their  mutual  resemblance. 

17.  Name    the   bones   of  the   shoulder.     Describe    the  collar-bone. 
The  shoulder-blade.     Can  you  describe  the  indirect  articulation  of  the 
shoulder-blade  with  the  trunk  ?   Name  the  bones  of  the  arm.   Describe 
the  shoulder-joint. 

18.  The  elbow  joint.     The  wrist. 

19.  Name   the   bones   of  the   hand.     The   fingers.      Describe   their 

*  Bone  structure  may  be  summarized  as  follows :  A  bone  is  a  collection  of 
Haversian  elements  or  rods.  An  Haversian  element  consists  of  a  tube  surrounded 
by  lamella,  which  contain  lacunas,  connected  by  canalic:di.—Dr.  T.  B.  Stowell. 


248  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 

articulations.      What  gives   the   thumb   its   freedom   of  motion?     In 
what  lies  the  perfection  of  the  ha.nd  ? 

20.  Describe  the  hip-joint.     What  gives  the  upper  limbs  more  free- 
dom of  motion  than  the  Iqwer  ?    How  does  the  pressure  of  the  air  aid 
us  in  walking?     Illustrate.     How  do  the  gestures  of  the  hand  enforce 
our  ideas  and  feelings? 

21.  Name  the  bones  of  the  lower  limbs.     Describe  the  knee-joint. 
The  patella.     What  is  the  use  of  the  fibula?    Can  you  show  how  the 
lower  extremity  of  the  fibula,  below  its  juncture  with  the  tibia,  is  pro- 
longed to  form  a  part  of  the  ankle-joint  ?    Name  the  bones  of  the  foot. 
What  is  the  use  of  the  arch  of  the  foot?     What  makes  the  step  elastic? 

22.  Describe  the  action  of  the  foot  as  we  step.     In  graceful  walking 
should  the  toes  or  the  heel  touch  the  ground  first?     What  are  the 
causes  of  deformed  feet?    What  is  the  natural  position  of  the  big  toe? 
Did  you  ever  see  a  big  toe  lying  in  a  straight  line  with  the  foot,  as 
shown  in  statuary  and   paintings?     How  should  we  have  our  boots 
and   shoes   made?    What  are  the  effects  of  high  heels?     Of  narrow 
heels?    Of  narrow  toes  ?     Of  tight-laced  boots?     Of  thin  soles?    What 
are  the  rickets  ?     Cause  of  this  disease  ?     Cure  ? 

23-24.  Causes  of  spinal  curvature?  Cure?  What  is  a  felon? 
Cure?  Cause  of  bow-legs ?  Cure?  Is  there  any  provision  for  reme- 
dying defects  in  the  body?  Name  one.  What  is  the  correct  position 
in  sitting  at  one's  desk?  Is  there  any  necessity  for  walking  and  sit- 
ting erect  ?  Describe  the  bad  effects  of  a  stooping  position.  \Vhat  is 
a  sprain?  Why  does  it  need  special  care?  What  is  a  dislocation? 


THE     MUSCLES. 

29.  WHAT  is  the  use  of  the  skeleton?     How  is  it  concealed?    Why 
is  it  the  image  of  death?    What  are  the  muscles?    How  many  are 
there?     What  peculiar  property  have  they?    Name  other  properties 
of  muscles.     Ans.  Tonicity,  elasticity. 

30.  How  are  they  arranged  ?     Where  is  the  biceps  ?    The  triceps  ? 
How  do  the  muscles  move  the  limbs?     Illustrate.     What  is  the  cause 
of  squinting?    Cure?    (See  p.  226.)     Name  and  define  the  two  kinds 
of  muscles.     Illustrate  each. 

31.  What  is  the  structure  of  a  muscle?     Of  what  is  a  fibril  itself 


THE  MUSCLES.  249 

composed  ?     How  does  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  muscle  confer 
strength  ? 

32.  Describe   the   tendons.      What   is    their   use?      Illustrate    the 
advantages  of  this  mode  of  attachment. 

33.  What  two  special  arrangements  of  the  tendons  in  the  hand  ? 
Their  use  ?     How  is  the  rotary  motion  of  the  eye  obtained  ? 

34.  What  is  a  lever?     Describe  the  three  classes  of  levers.     Illus- 
trate  each.     Describe   the   head  as  a  lever.     What  parts  of  the  body 
illustrate  the  three  kinds  of  levers? 

35.  Give  an  illustration  of  the   second  class  of  levers.     The  third 
class.     Why  is  the  Tendon  of  Achilles  so  named  ?     What  is  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  third  class  of  levers?     Why  used  in  the  hand?     What 
class  of  lever  is  the  lower  jaw? 

36.  What  advantages  are  gained  by  the  enlargement  of  the  bones  at 
the  joints?     Illustrate.     How  do  we  stand  erect?     Is  it  an  involuntary 
act?     Why  cannot  a  child  walk  at  once,  as  many  young  animals  do  ? 

37.  Why  can  we  not  hold  up  the  head  easily  when  we  walk  on  "  all 
fours"?     Why  cannot  an  animal  stand  erect  as  man  does?     Describe 
the  process  of  walking.     Show  that  walking  is  a  process  of  falling. 

38.  Describe  the  process  of  running.     What  causes  the  swinging  of 
the  hand  in  walking?     Why  are  we  shorter  when  walking?*     Why 
does  a  person  when  lost  often  go  in  a  circle?     In  which  direction  does 
one  always  turn  in  that  case?f 

39.  What  is  the  muscular  sense?    Its  value?     Value  of  exercise  ? 

40.  Is  there  any  danger  of  violent  exercise?      For  what   purpose 
should  we  exercise?     Should  exercise  be  in  the  open  air?     What  is 
the  rule  for  exercise?     Is  a  young  person  excusable,  who  leads  a 
sedentary  life,  and  yet  takes  no  daily  out-door  exercise  ?     What  will 
be  nature's  penalty  for  such  a  violation  of  her  law?     Will  a  postpone- 
ment of  the  penalty  show  that  we  have  escaped  it?     Ought  a  scholar 
to  study  during  the  time  of  recess?     Will  a  promenade  in  the  vitiated 
air  of  the  school-room  furnish  suitable  exercise?    What   is  the  best 
time  for  taking  exercise? 

*  Stand  a  boy  erect  against  a  wall.  Mark  his  height  with  a  stick.  Now  have 
him  step  off  a  part  of  a  pace,  and  then  several  whole  paces.  Next,  let  him  close  his 
eyes,  and  walk  to  the  wall  again.  He  will  be  perceptibly  lower  than  the  stick,  until 
he  straightens  up  once  more  from  a  walking  position. 

t  Take  several  boys  into  a  smooth  grass  lot.  Set  up  a  stick  at  a  distance  for 
them  to  walk  toward.  Test  the  boys,  to  find  which  are  left-handed,  or  right-handed  ; 
which  left-legged  or  right-legged.  Then  blindfold  the  boys  and  let  them  walk,  as 
they  think,  toward  the  mark.  See  who  varies  toward  the  right,  and  who  turns  to 
the  left. 


250  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 

41.  Who  can  exercise  before  breakfast?  What  are  the  advantages 
of  the  different  kinds  of  exercise  ?  Should  we  not  walk  more  ?  What 
is  the  general  influence  upon  the  body  of  vigorous  exercise? 

42-3.  State  some  of  the  wonders  of  the  muscles.  What  is  the  St. 
Vitus's  dance  ?  Cure  ?  What  is  the  locked-jaw  ?  Causes  ?  The 
gout?  Cause?  Cure?  The  rheumatism  ?  Its  two  forms  ? 

44-5.  Peculiarity  of  the  acute  ?  Danger  ?  Is  there  any  particular 
mode  of  treating  it?  What  is  the  lumbago?  Give  instances.  What 
is  a  ganglion  ?  Its  cure  ?  A  bursa  ? 


THE     SKIN. 

49.  WHAT  are  the  uses  of  the  skin  ?     Describe  its  adaptation  to  its 
place.     What  is  its  function  as  an  organ  ?     Describe  the  structure  of 
the  skin.     The  sensitiveness  of  the  cutis.     The  insensitiveness  of  the 
cuticle. 

50.  How  is  the  skin  constantly  changing?    The  shape  and  number 
of  the  cells?    Value   of  the   cuticle?     How   is   the   cuticle  formed? 
Ans.  By  secretion  from  the  cutis. 

51.  What  is  the  complexion?     Its  cause?    Why  is  a  scar   white? 
What  is   the   cause   of  "tanning"?    What   are   freckles?    Albinos? 
Describe   the  action  of  the  sun  on  the  skin.     Why  are  the  hairs  and 
the  nails  spoken  of  under  the  head  of  the  skin  ? 

52.  Uses  of  the  hair?     Its  structure?    What  is  the  hair-bulb?    What 
is  it  called?    How  does  a  hair  grow?    When  can  it  be   restored,  if 
destroyed?    What  is  the  danger  of  hair-dyes?    Are  they  of  any  real 
value? 

53.  How  can  the  hair  stand  on  end?    How  do  horses  move  their 
skin?     Is  there  any  feeling  in  a  hair?     Illustrate  the  indestructibility 
of  the  hair. 

54.  What  are   the   uses  of  the  nails  ?     How  do    the   nails   grow  ? 
What  is  the  mucous  membrane?     Its  composition  ? 

55.  The  connective  tissue?    Why  so  called?    What  use  does  it  sub- 
serve ?     What  is  its  character? 

56.  How  does  the  fat   exist  in   the  body?     Its   uses?      State   the 
various  uses  of  membrane  in  the  body.     Where  is  there  no  fat?    Why 
are  the  teeth  spoken  of  in  connection  with  the  mucous  membrane? 
Name  and  describe  the  foui  kinds  of  teeth. 


RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE.  251 

57.  What  are  the  milk  teeth  ?     Describe  them.     What  teeth  appear 
first?      When    do    the    permanent    teeth    appear?      Describe    their 
growth.    Which  one  comes  first  ?    Last  ? 

58.  Describe  the  structure  of  the  teeth. 

59.  How  are  the  teeth  fitted  in  the  jaw?    Why  do  the  teeth  decay? 
What  care  should  be  taken  of  the  teeth?      What  caution  should  be 
observed  ? 

60.  What  are  the  oil  glands  ?     Use  of  this  secretion  ?    What  are  the 
perspiratory  glands  ?     State  their  number.     Their  total  length. 

61.  What  are  the  "pores"  of  the  skin?    What  is  the  perspiration  ? 
What  is  the  constitution  of  the  perspiration?     Illustrate  its  value. 
Name  the  three  uses  of  the  skin. 

62.  Illustrate  the  absorbing  power  of  the  skin.    Why  are  cosmetics 
and  hair-dyes  injurious?     What  relation  exists  between  the  skin  and 
the  lungs?     When  is  the  best  time  for  a  bath  ?    Why? 

63.  Value  of  friction?    Should  a  bath  be  taken  just  before  or  after  a 
meal?    Is  soap  beneficial?    What  is  the  "reaction"?    Explain    its 
invigorating  influence.     How  is  it  secured  ? 

64.  General  effect  of  a  cold  bath?    Of  a  warm  bath?    If  we  feel 
chilly  and  depressed  after  a  bath,  what  is  the  teaching?     Describe  the 
Russian  vapor  bath.     Why  is  the  sea -bath  so  stimulating?     How  long 
should  one  remain  in  any  bath? 

65.  How  does  clothing  keep  us  warm?    Explain  the  use  of  linen  as 
an  article   of  clothing.     Cotton.     Woolen.     Flannel.     How   can   we 
best  protect  ourselves  against  the  changes  of  our  climate  ? 

66.  What  colored  clothing  is  best  adapted  for  all  seasons?     Value 
of  the  nap?     Furs?     Thick  vs.  thin  clothing?     Should  we  wear  thick 
clothing  during  the  day,  and  in  the  evening  put  on  thin  clothing? 
Can  children  endure  exposure  better  than  grown  persons  ?    What  is 
the  erysipelas  ?     How  relieved  ? 

67.  Dropsy  ?    Corns  ?    Cause  ?    Cure  ?     In-growing  nails  ?    Cure  ? 
Warts  ?    Cure  ? 

63.  Chilblain  ?    Cause  ?    Preventive  ?    Wens  ?    Cure  ? 


RESPIRATION    AND    THE    VOICE. 

73.  NAME  the  organs  of  respiration  and  the  voice.  Describe  the 
larynx.  The  epiglottis.  The  oesophagus.  What  is  meant  by  food 
"  going  the  wrong  way  "  ? 


252  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 

74.  Describe   the  vocal   cords.      Their  use.     How   is  sound    pro- 
duced? 

75.  How  are  the  higher  tones  of  the  voice  produced  ?    The  lower  ? 
Upon  what  does  loudness  depend  ?    A  falsetto  voice  ?     What  is  the 
cause  of  the  voice  "  changing  "  ? 

76.  What  is  speech?     Vocalization?    Could  a  person  talk  without 
his  tongue  ?     Illustrate.     How  are  talking  machines  made  ? 

77.  How  is  a  formed  by  the  voice?    What  is  h  ?     Difference  between 
a  sigh  and  a  groan  ?     What   vowel   sounds  are   made   in   laughing  ? 
Does  whistling  depend  on  the  voice?    Tell  how  the  various  conso- 
nants are  formed.     What  are  the   labials?     The   dentals?    The   lin- 
guals  ?    What  vowels  does  a  child  pronounce  first  ? 

78.  Describe  the  wind-pipe.     The  bronchi.      The   bronchial    tubes. 
Why  is  the  trachea  so  called? 

79.  Describe  the   structure  of  the  lungs.     What   are   the  lungs  of 
slaughtered  animals  called?     Why  will  a  piece  of  the  lungs  float  on 
water?     Name   the   wrappings  of  the   lungs.      Describe  the   pleura. 
How  is  friction  prevented ?     What  are  the  cilia?    What  is  their  use ? 

80.  What  two  acts  constitute  respiration  ?     In  what  two  ways  may 
the  position  of  the  ribs  change  the  capacity  of  the  chest  ?     Describe 
the  process  of  respiration.     Expiration.     How  often  do  we  breathe? 
Describe  the  diaphragm. 

81.  What  is  sighing?    Coughing?     Sneezing?     Snoring?     Laugh- 
ing?    Crying  ?     Hiccough?     Yawning?     Its  value? 

82.  What  is  meant  by  the  breathing  capacity?     How  does  it  vary? 
How  much,  in  addition,  can  the  lungs  expel  forcibly?     How  much  of 
the  breathing  capacity  is  available  only  through  praclice?     Value  of 
this  extra  supply?     Can  we  expel  all  the  air  from  our  lungs?     Value 
of  this  constant  supply? 

83.  How  constant  is  the  need  of  air?    What  is  the  vital  element  of 
the  air?     Describe  the  action  of  the  oxygen  in  our  lungs.     What  does 
the  blood  give  up?    Gain?     How  can  this  be  tested?    What  are  the 
constituents  of  the  air?     What  are  the  peculiar  properties  and  uses  of 
each?    What  is  the  condition  of  the  air  we  exhale?    Which  is  the 
most  dangerous  constituent?     Describe  the  evil  effects  of  re-breathing 
the  air. 

84.  For  what  is  the  "Black  Hole  of  Calcutta"  noted?    Give  other 
illustrations  of  the  dangers  of  bad  air.     What  is  meant  by  the  germs 
of  disease  floating  in  the  air? 

85-93.  Describe  the  need  of  ventilation.     Will  a  single  breath  pol- 


THE  CIRCULATION.  233 

lute  the  air?  What  is  the  influence  of  a  fire  or  a  light?  Of  a  hot 
stove  ?  When  is  the  ventilation  perfect  ?  What  diseases  are  largely 
owing  to  bad  air?  Should  the  windows  and  doors  be  tightly  closed, 
if  we  have  no  other  means  of  ventilation?  Is  not  a  draught  of  air 
dangerous?  How  can  we  prevent  this,  and  yet  secure  fresh  air? 
What  is  the  general  principle  of  ventilation  ?  Must  pure  air  neces- 
sarily be  cold  air?  Are  school-rooms  properly  ventilated  ?  What  is 
the  effect?  Are  churches?  Are  our  bed-rooms?  Can  we,  at  night, 
breathe  anything  but  night  air?  Is  the  night  air  out-of-doors  ever 
injurious?  Ans.  It  is,  in  times  and  places  of  malaria,  and  also  in 
very  damp  weather,  and  should  be  avoided,  even  at  the  risk  of  bad  air 
in-doors. 

93.  Describe  some  of  the  wonders  of  respiration.     How  is  constric- 
tion of  the  lungs  produced  ? 

94.  When  may  clothing  be  considered  tight  ?     What  are  the  dangers 
of  tight-lacing?     Which  would  make  the  stronger,  moie  vigorous,  and 
longer-lived  person,  the  form  shown  in  A  or  B,  Fig.  33  ?     Is  it  safe  to 
run  any  risk  in  this  dangerous  direction? 

95.  What    is    the   bronchitis?     Pleurisy?     Pneumonia?     Consump- 
tion ?    What  is  one  great  cause  of  this  disease  ?     How  may  a  consti- 
tutional tendency  to  this  disease  be  warded  off  in  youth?    Ans.  Be- 
sides plenty  of  fresh  air  and  exercise,  care  should  be  taken  in  the  diet. 
Rich  pastry,  unripe  fruit,   salted  meat,  and   acid   drinks   should  be 
avoided,  and  a  certain  quantity  of  fat  should  be  eaten  at  each  meal. — 
Bennett.     What  is  asphyxia?     Describe  the  process  for  restoring  such 
a  person.     (See  Appendix?)     What  is  the  diphtheria?     Its  peculiarity ? 
Danger? 

96.  The   croup?     Its  characteristics?      Remedy?    (See  Appendix.} 
Causes  of  stammering  ?     How  cured  ? 


THE    CIRCULATION. 

103.  NAME  the  organs  of  the  circulation.    J)oes  the  blood   per- 
meate all  parts  of  the  body  ?     What  is  the  average  amount  in  each 
person?     Its  composition?    The  plasma?     The  red  corpuscles ?    The 
white  ? 

104.  What  is  the  size  of  a  red  cell  ?    Are  the  'shape  and  size  uni- 
form ?    Value  of  this  ?     Illustrate.     Are  the  disks  permanent? 


254  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 

105.  What  substances  are  contained  in  the  plasma  ?    What  is  fibrin  ? 
In  what  sense  is  the  blood  "  liquid  flesh  "  ?     What  is  the  use  of  the 
red  disks?     What  is  the  office  of  the  oxygen  in  the  body?     Where  is 
the  blood  purified  ? 

106.  What  is  transfusion?    Give  some  illustrations.     Is  it  of  value? 

107.  What  is  the  cause  of  coagulation  of  the  blood  ?    Value  of  this 
property  ?  Has  the  fibrin  any  other  use  ?   What  organ  propels  the  blood  ? 

loS.  What  is  the  location  of  the  heart  ?  How  large  is  it  ?  Put  your 
hand  over  it.  What  is  the  pericardium  ? 

109.  Describe  the  systole.  The  diastole.  How  many  chambers  in 
the  heart  ?  What  is  their  average  size  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  right 
and  the  left  heart  ? 

no.  What  are  the  auricles?  Why  so  called?  The  ventricles? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  auricles?  The  ventricles?  Which  are  made 
the  stronger  ?  Show  the  need  of  valves  in  the  ventricles.  Why  are 
there  no  valves  in  the  auricles  ?  Draw  on  the  board  the  form  of 
the  valves.  Name  them. 

in.  Describe  the  tricuspid  valve.     The  bicuspid. 

112.  How  are  these  valves  strengthened?     What  peculiarity  in  the 
attachment  of  these  cords  ?     Describe  the  semi-lunar  valves.     What 
are  the  arteries  ?    Why  so  named  ?    What  is  their  use  ?    Their  struc- 
ture ?     How  does  their  elasticity  act?     What  is  meant  by  a  "  collateral 
circulation  "  ? 

113.  How  are   the  arteries   protected?    Where  are   they  located? 
Give  a  general  description  of  the  arterial  system.    What  is  the  aorta? 
What  is  the  pulse  ?    On  which  arteries  can  we  best  feel  it  ?     What  is 
the  average  number  of  beats  per  minute?     How  and  why  does  this 
vary  ? 

114.  Why  does   a  physician  feel  a  patient's  pulse?     What  are  the 
veins  ?    What  blood   do   they  carry  ?     Describe   the   venous  system. 
What  vein  does  not  lead  toward  the  heart  ? 

115.  Describe  the  valves  of  the  veins.     What  valves  of  the  heart  do 
they  resemble  ?    Where  and  how  can  we  see  the  operation  of  these 
valves?    What  are  the  capillaries?    What  is  the  function  of  the  capil- 
laries ?  *     What  changes  take  place  in  this  system  ?     What  are  vari- 
cose veins? 

<^The  distinctive  function  of  the  capillaries  is  to  offer  peripheral  resistance  to  the 
circulation  of  the  blood.  This  insures  "  blood  pressure,"  n  condition  indispensable 
to  the  "  heart  beat,"  and  also  causes  leakage  (transudation).  This  leakage  brings 
the  nutriment  in  contact  with  the  tissue  crlls.  whereby  they  are  renewed.  In  the 
same  way  the  air  passes  from  the  blood  to  the  cells. 

^ 


THE  CIRCULATION.  255 

116.  Describe  the  circulation  of  the  blood  as  seen  in  the  web  of  a 
frog's  foot.     In  what  two  portions  is  the  general  circulation  divided  ? 
Who  discovered  the  circulation  of  the  blood  ?     How  was  the  discovery 
received?      What    remark    did    Harvey    make?      What    does     that 
show  ? 

117.  Describe  the  route  of  the  blood  by  the  diagram,      i.  The  lesser 
circulation  ;  2.  The  greater  circulation.     What  is  the  velocity  of  the 
blood?     How  long  does  it  require  for  all  the  blood  to  pass  through 
the  heart?     How  has  this  been  estimated?     What  is  the  shortest  route 
the  blood  can  take  ?     The  longest  ?     How  long  does  it  take  the  blood 
to  make  the  tour  of  the  body  ?     How  has  this  been  estimated  ?     What 
is  the  average  temperature  of  the  body?     How  much  does  this  vary 
in  health?    Ans.  Not  more  than  2°,  even  in  the  greatest  extremes  of 
temperature. — Flint. 

119.  How  and  where  is  the  heat  of  the  body  generated  ?    How  is  it 
distributed  ?     In  what  diseases  is  the  variation  of  temperature  marked  ? 
How  is  the  temperature  of  the  body  regulated  ? 

120.  In  what  way  does  life  exist  through  death  ?     Is  not  this  as  true 
in  the  moral  as  in  the  physical  world  ?     What  does  it  teach  ?     How 
rapidly  do  our  bodies  change?    What  are  the  three  vital  organs  ? 

I2t.  Name  some  of  the  wonders  of  the  heart. 

122-4.  What  is  the  lymphatic  circulation?  What  is  the  thoracic 
duct?  The  lymph?  The  glands?  What  is  the  office  of  the  lymphat- 
ics ?  What  are  the  lacteals  ?  Give  some  illustrations  of  the  action  of 
the  lymphatics  of  the  different  organs.  Should  we  use  care  in  select- 
ing wall-paper?  What  is  meant  by  the  sub-cutaneous  insertion  of 
morphine?  How  do  hibernating  animals  live  during  the  winter? 
What  is  a  congestion?  Its  cause?  Blushing?  Why  does  terror 
cause  one  to  grow  cold  and  pale  ? 

125.  How  is  an  inflammation  caused  ?  Name  its  four  characteristics. 
How  may  severe  bleeding  be  stopped  ?  How  can  you  tell  whether  the 
blood  comes  from  an  artery  or  a  vein  ?  Why  should  you  know  this  ? 

126-7.  What  is  the  scrofula?  What  are  "kernels"?  How  may  a 
scrofulous  tendency  of  the  system  be  counteracted  ?  What  kinds  of 
food  stimulate  this  disease?  What  is  the  cause  of  "a  cold"?  Why 
does  exposure  sometimes  cause  a  cold  in  the  head,  sometimes  on  the 
lungs,  and  at  others  brings  on  a  rheumatic  attack  ?  Why  is  a  cold 
dangerous  ?  Ans.  It  weakens  the  system  and  paves  the  way  for  other 
diseases.  What  is  the  theory  of  treating  a  cold?  Describe  the 
method.  What  is  catarrh  ?  Cause  ? 


250  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 

128.  Illustrate  the  general  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  circulation. 
Upon  the  heart.  Upon  the  membrane.  Upon  the  blood.  Upon  the 
lungs.  What  is  the  active  principle  of  all  liquors  ? 


DIGESTION     AND     FOOD. 

139.  WHY  do  we  need  food  ?    Why  will  a  person  starve  without 
food  ?    Are  the  current  stories  of  people  who  live  without  food  to  be 
relied   upon  ?     How  much  food  is   needed   per    day   by   an  adult  in 
active   exercise?     How  much   in   a  year?     How  does   this  amount 
vary? 

140.  Describe  the  body  as  a  mold.     As  an  eddy.     What  does  food 
do  for  us  ?    What  does  food  contain  ?     How  is  this  force  set  Iree  ? 
What  force  is  this  ?     How  can  it  be  turned   into  muscular  motion, 
mental  vigor,  etc.  ?     Do   we  then  draw  all   our  power  from  nature  ? 
What  becomes  of  these  forces  when  we  are  done  with  them  ?     Do  we 
destroy  the  force  we  use  ?     Ans.  No  matter  has  been  destroyed,  so  far 
as  we  know,  since  the  creation,  and  force  is  equally  indestructible. 

141.  Compare  our  food  to  a  tense  spring.     What  three  kinds  of  food 
do  we  need  ?    What  is  nitrogenous  food  ?     Name  the  common  forms. 
What  is  the  characteristic  of  nitrogenous  food  ?     Why  called  albumi- 
nous? 

142.  What  is  carbonaceous  food?     Its  two  kinds?     Constituents  of 
sugar?     Where  are  starch  and  gum  ranked  ?    Why?     Use  of  carbona- 
ceous food?     What  becomes  of  this  heat  ?     Composition  of  fat  ?     How 
does  fat  compare  with  sugar  in  producing  heat?     Name  the  other  uses 
of  carbonaceous  food.     From  what  kind  of  food  does  the  body  derive 
the  greatest  strength  ? 

143.  Name  the  mineral  matters  which  should  be  contained  in  our 
food.     What   do  you  say  of  the  abundance  and  necessity  of  water? 
Ought  we  not  to  exercise  great  care  in  selecting  the  water  we  drink  ?* 

*  Water  which  has  passed  through  lead-pipes  is  apt  to  contain  salts  of  that  metal, 
and  is  therefore  open  to  suspicion.  Metallic-lined  ice-pitchers,  galvanized-iron 
reservoirs,  and  many  soda-water  fountains,  are  liable  to  the  same  objection.  There 
are  also  organic  impurities  in  water  equally  dangerous.  River-water  often  dissemi- 
nates the  germs  of  typhoid  fever  and  other  diseases  just  as  the  air  scatters  the  seeds 
of  small-pox  and  scarlet  fever.  Thus  the  great  outbreak  of  cholera  in  the  east  of 
London,  in  1866,  was  traced  to  the  contamination  of  the  River  Lea,  which  furnished 
the  supply  of  water  to  that  part  of  the  city.  The  surface  water  frequently  flows  into 
a  well  carrying  organic  matter  to  poison  its  contents.  Wells  sometimes  receive 
underground  the  drainage  from  grave-yards,  manufactories,  cess-pools,  swamps, 
barn-yards,  vaults,  etc.,  all  of  which  render  the  water  unfit  for  use. 


DIGESTION  AND  FOOD.  257 

Will  not  the  character  of  our  food  influence  the  quantity  of  water 
\ve  need  ?  What  are  the  uses  of  these  different  minerals  ?  Illustrate 
the  importance  of  salt. 

144.  Could  a  person  live  on  one  kind  of  food  alone?     Illustrate. 
Describe  the  effect  of  living  on  lean  meat.     Show  the  necessity  of  a 
mixed  diet.     Illustrate.     Show  the  need  of  digestion.     Illustrate. 

145.  What  is  assimilation  ?     Describe  the  general  plan  of  digestion. 
What  did  Berzelius  call  digestion?     Why?     What  amount  of  liquid  is 
daily  secreted  by  the  alimentary  canal  ? 

146.  What  is  the  alimentary  canal  ?     How  is  it  lined  ?     How  does 
the  amaeba  digest  its  food  ?    The  hydra?     Define  secretion.     Describe 
the  saliva.     How  is  it  secreted  ?     What  is  the  amount  ? 

147.  Its  organic  principle  ?     Its  use?     How  soon  does  it  act?     How 
long  ?     What  tends  to  check  or  increase  the  flow  of  saliva  ? 

149.  Describe  the  process  of  swallowing.     The  stomach.     Its  size, 
Its  construction.     What  is  the  peristaltic  movement?    The  pylorus? 
For  what  does  this  open  ?     What  is  the  gastric  juice  ?     How  abundant 
is  it?    To  what  is  its  acidity  due? 

150.  What   organic   principle  does   it  contain?      How  is   its    flow 
influenced?     What  is  its  use?     Appearance  of  the  food  as  it  passes 
through   the   pylorus?     How   is   pepsin   prepared?     Why   is  not   the 
stomach  itself  digested  ?     What  is  the  construction  of  the  intestines? 

151.  How  are   the   intestines   divided?     What   is   the   duodenum? 
Why  so  called?    What  juices  are  secreted  here?    What  is  the  bile? 
Describe  (he  liver.     What  is  its  weight?     Its  construction?    Ans.  It 
consists  of  a  mass  of  polyhedral  cells  only  yj^  to  ^yVo  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  filling  a  mesh  of  capillaries.     The  capillaries  carry  the  blood 
to  and  fro,  and  the  cells  secrete  the  bile.     What  is  the  cyst  ?     What 
does  the   liver   secrete  from   the  blood  besides  the  bile?     Is  the  bile 
necessary  to  life  ?     Illustrate.     What  is  its  use  ?    What  is  the  pancre- 
at'.c  juice  ?     Its  organic  principle  ?     Its  use  ? 

152.  Appearance  of  the  food  when  it  leaves  the  duodenum  ?  Describe 
the  small  intestine. 

153.  What  is  absorption?     In  what  two  ways  is  the  food  absorbed? 
Where  does  the  process  commence?     How  long  does   it  last?     De- 
scribe the  lacteals.     Of  what  general   system  do  they  form  a  part? 
What  do  the  veins  absorb  ?    Where  do  they  carry  the  food  ? 

154.  How  is  it  modified?     Describe  the  complexity  of  the  process 
of  digestion.     What  length  of  time  required  for  digestion  in  the  stom- 
ach? 


258  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 

155.  May  not  food  which  requires  little  time  in  the  stomach  need 
more  in  the  other  organs,  and  vice  versa?    Tell  the  story  of  Alexis 
St.  Martin.      What   time  was  required  to  digest   an   ordinary  meal  ? 
Apples  ?    Eggs,  raw  and  cooked  ?    Roast  beef  ?     Pork  ?    Which  is  the 
king  of  the  meats?     What  is  the  nutritive  value  of  mutton?     Lamb? 
How  should  it  be  cooked  ?    Objection  to  pork  ?    What  is  the  trichina  ? 
Should  ham  ever  be  eaten  raw? 

156.  Value  of  fish  ?    Oysters?    Milk?    Cheese?      Eggs?    Bread? 
Brown  bread?     Are  warm  biscuit  and  bread  healthful?      Nutritive 
value  of  corn  ?    The  potato  ?    Of  ripe  fruits? 

157.  Of  coffee?    To   what   is   its   stimulating   property   due?      Its 
influence  on   the   system?    When  should   it  be   discarded?    Should 
children  use  any  stimulants?     Effects  of  tea?     Influence   of  strong 
tea?    What  is  the  active  principle  of  tea  ? 

158.  Nutritive  value  of  chocolate?     What  is  its  active  principle? 
Story  of  Linnaeus?     How  should  tea  be  made?    What  is  the  effect  of 
cooking  food?      What   precaution   in  boiling    meat?      In  roasting? 
Object  of  this  high  temperature  ?    What  precaution  in  making  soup  ? 
Why  is  frying  an  unhealthful  mode  of  cooking  ? 

159.  State  the  five  evil  results  of  rapid  eating.     What  disease  grows 
out  of  it  ?     If  one  is  compelled  to  eat  a  meal  rapidly,  as  at  a  railroad 
station,  what  should  he  take?    Why?    Why  does  a  child  need  more 
food  proportionately  than  an  old  person  ?     State  the  relation  of  waste 
to  repair  in  youth,  in  middle,  and  in  old  age.     What  kind  and  quan- 
tity of  food   does  a   sedentary   occupation   require?    What    caution 
should  students  who  have  been  accustomed  to  manual  labor  observe? 
Must  a  student  starve  himself?     Is  there  not  danger  of  over-eating? 
Would  not  an  occasional  abstinence  from  a  meal  be  beneficial  ?     Do 
not  most  people  eat  more  than  is  for  their  good?    How  should  the 
season  regulate  our  diet  ? 

160.  The  climate?     Illustrate.     What  does  a  natural  appetite  indi- 
cate?    How  are  we  to  judge  between  a  natural  and  an  artificial  long- 
ing ?    What  does  the  craving  of  childhood  for  sugar  indicate  ?  *    What 

*  It  does  not  follow  from  this,  however,  that  the  free  use  of  sugar  in  its  separate 
form  is  desirable.  The  ordinary  articles  of  vegetable  food  contain  sugar  (or  starch, 
which  in  the  body  is  converted  into  sugar),  in  large  proportion  ;  and  there  is  good, 
reason  to  bejieve  that  in  its  naturally-combined  form  it  is  both  more  easily  digested, 
and  more  available  for  the  purposes  of  nutrition,  than  when  crystallized.  The  ordi- 
nary sugar  of  commerce,  moreover,  derived  from  the  sugar-cane,  is  not  capable  of 
being  directly  applied  to  physiological  purposes.  Cane-sugar  is  converted  within 
the  body  into  another  kind  of  sugar,  identical  with  that  derived  from  the  grape,  before 
it  can  enter  into  the  circuit  of  the  vital  changes. 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  259 

is  the  effect  upon  the  circulation  of  taking  food  ?  Should  we  labor  or 
study  just  before  or  after  a  meal?  Why  not?  What  time  should 
intervene  between  our  meals?  Is  "lunching"  a  healthful  practice? 
Eating  just  before  retiring? 

161.  Why  should  care  be  banished  frt>m  the  table  ?  Will  a  regular 
routine  of  food  be  beneficial  ?  Describe  some  of  the  wonders  of  diges- 
tion. 

162-3.  What  are  the  principal  causes  of  dyspepsia  ?  How  may  we 
avoid  that  disease?  What  are  the  mumps?  What  care  should  be 
taken?  Is  alcohol  a  food?  Illustrate.  Compare  the  action  of  alco- 
hol with  thai  of  water.  Is  all  the  alcohol  taken  into  the  stomach  elim- 
inated unchanged?  Does  alcohol  contain  any  element  needed  by  the 
body?  What  is  the  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  digestion?  Will  pepsin 
act  in  the  presence  of  alcohol?  What  is  the  effect  of  alcohol  upon 
the  liver?  What  is  "Fatty  Degeneration"?  What  is  the  effect  of 
alcohol  upon  the  kidneys  ?  Does  alcohol  impart  heat  to  the  body  ? 
Does  it  confer  strength?  What  does  Dr.  Kane  say?  Describe  Rich- 
ardson's experiments.  Tell  what  peculiar  influence  alcohol  exerts. 
What  is  alcoholism?  What  is  heredity? 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

177.  WHAT  are  the  organs  of  the  nervous  system?  What  is  the 
general  use  of  this  system?  How  does  it  distinguish  animals  from 
plants?  What  are  the  vegetative  functions?  What  is  the  gray  mat- 
ter ?  Its  use  ?  The  white  matter  ?  Its  use  ? 

179.  Describe  the  brain.     What  is  its  office?     Its  size?     How  does 
it  vary?     Illustrate.     Name  its  two  divisions.     Describe  the  cerebrum. 

180.  The   convolutions.      The   membranes   which    bind    the   brain 
together.     What  do  you  say  of  the  quantity  of  blood  which  goes  to  the 
brain  ?    What  does  it  show  ?    What  do  the  convolutions  indicate? 

181.  What  is  the  use  of  the  two  halves  of  the  brain?     What  theories 
have  been  advanced  concerning  it  ?    What  is  the  effect  of  removing 
the  cerebrum  ? 

182.  Describe  the  cerebellum.     What  is  the  arbor  vitae?     What  does 
this  part  of  the  brain  control  ?    What  is  the  effect  of  its  being  injured  ? 
Illustrate. 


260  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 

183.  Describe  the  spinal  cord.  What  is  the  medulla  oblongata? 
Describe  the  nerves.  Is  each  part  of  the  body  supplied  with  its  own 
nerve  ?  Prove  it. 

184-5.  Name  the  three  classes  of  nerves.  What  are  the  motory 
nerves?  The  sensory?  When  will  motion  be  lost  and  feeling 
remain,  and  vice  versa  ?  What  is  meant  by  a  transfer  of  pain  ?  Illus- 
trate. What  are  the  spinal  nerves  ?  Describe  the  origin  of  the  spinal 
nerve.  What  are  the  cranial  nerves? 

185-187.  Describe  the  sympathetic  system.  What  is  its  use  ?  How 
does  the  brain  control  all  the  vital  processes?  What  is  meant  by  the 
crossing  of  the  cords? 

1 88.  What  is  the  effect?    \Vhat  exception  in  the  seventh  pair  of 
cranial  nerves?     What  is  reflex  action  ?     Give  illustrations. 

189.  Give  instances  of  the  unconscious  action  of  the  brain.*    Can 

*  Dr.  Carpenter,  in  the  course  of  a  recent  lecture  at  Manchester,  England,  upon 
the  '•  Unconscious  Action  of  the  Brain,"  gave  the  following  among  other  illustrations : 
i.  We  find  that  when  we  set  off  in  the  morning  with  the  intention  of  going  to  our 
place  of  employment,  not  only  do  our  legs  move  without  our  consciousness,  if  we 
are  attending  to  something  entirely  different,  but  we  guide  ourselves  in  our  walk 
through  the  streets ;  we  do  not  run  up  against  anybody  we  meet ;  we  do  not  strike 
ourselves  against  the  lamp-posts ;  and  we  take  the  appropriate  turns  which  are 
habitual  to  us.  It  has  often  happened  to  myself,  and  I  dare  say  it  has  happened  to 
every  one  of  you,  that  you  have  intended  to  go  somewhere  else — that  when  you 
started  you  intended  instead  of  going  in  the  direct  line  to  which  you  were  daily 
accustomed,  to  go  a  little  out  of  your  way  to  perform  some  little  commission  ;  but 
you  have  got  into  a  train  of  thought  and  forgotten  yourself,  and  you  find  that  you 
are  half-way  along  your  accustomed  track  before  you  become  aware  of  it.  Now,  there, 
you  see,  is  the  same  automatic  action  of  these  sensory  ganglia — we  see.  we  hear— for 
instance,  we  hear  the  rumbling  of  the  carriages,  and  we  avoid  them  without  thinking 
of  it — our  muscles  act  in  respondence  to  these  sights  and  sounds— and  yet  all  this  is 
<lone  without  our  intentional  direction— they  do  it  for  us.  We  arrive  at  a  certain 
point  where  we  are  accustomed  to  stop,  and  are  surprised  that  we  have  reached  it. 
You  will  ask  me,  perhaps,  "  What  is  the  exciting  cause  of  this  succession  of  actions 
in  walking  ?  "  I  believe  it  is  the  contact  of  the  ground  with  the  foot  at  each  move- 
ment. We  put  down  the  foot,  that  suggests  as  it  were  to  the  spinal  cord  the  next 
movement  of  the  leg  in  advance,  and  that  foot  comes  down  in  its  turn  ;  and  so  we 
follow  with  this  regular  rhythmical  succession  of  movements.  It  is  all  done  through 
the  reflex  action  of  the  spinal  cord. 

z.  The  cerebellum  has  its  unconscious  action  in  the  processes  of  respiration,  the 
involuntary  movements  which  are  made  in  response  to  the  senses,  as  in  winking, 
starting  back  at  a  sound,  etc. 

3.  The  cerebrum  acts  automatically  in  cases  familiar  to  all.  A  large  part  of  our 
mental  activity  consists  of  this  unconscious  work  of  the  brain.  There  are  many 
cases  in  which  the  mind  has  obviously  worked  more  clearly  and  more  successfully 
in  this  automatic  condition,  when  left  entirely  to  itself,  than  when  we  have  been 
cudgeling  our  brains,  so  to  speak,  to  get  the  solution.  An  instance  was  put  on  record 
by  a  gentleman  well  known  in  London,  the  Rev.  John  De  Liefde,  a  Dutch  clergy- 
man, who  gave  it  on  the  authority  of  a  fellow-student  who  had  been  at  the  college 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  261 

there  be  feeling  or  motion  in  the  lower  limbs  when  the  spinal  cord  is 
destroyed?  What  does  the  story  told  by  Dr.  John  Hunter  show? 
Give  illustrations  of  the  independent  action  of  the  spinal  cord  in 
animals.  What  are  the  uses  of  reflex  action  ? 

190.  State  its  value  in  the  formation  of  habits.     How  does  the  brain 
grow?     What  laws  govern  it?     What  must  be  the  effect  of  constant 
light-reading  ?     Of  over-study  or  mental  labor  ? 

191.  State  the  relation  of  sleep  to  repair  and  waste.     How  many 
hours  does  each   person  need  ?     What  kind  of  work    requires   most 
sleep  ? 

192.  What   is  the   influence  of  sunlight  on  the  body?     Illustrate. 
Name  some  of  the  wonders  of  the  brain. 

193-8.  What  four  stages  are  there  in  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the 
nervous  system  ?  Describe  each.  Does  alcohol  confer  any  permanent 
strength?  What  is  the  physiological  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  brain? 
On  the  mental  and  moral  powers?  What  is  the  Delirium  Tremens? 

198.  What  are  the  principal  constituents  of  tobacco  ?     Should  a  man 
be  punished  for  a  crime  he  commits  while  drunk  ? 

199.  What  are  the  physiological  effects  of  tobacco  ? 

200.  Who  are  most  likely  to  escape  injury? 

201.  Is  tobacco  a  food?    What  is  its  influence  upon  youth?     Why 
are  cigarettes  specially  injurious?     What  effect  does  tobacco  have  on 
the  sensibilities? 

202.  Name  illustrations  of  the  injurious  effect  of  tobacco  on  young 
men.     How  is   opium   obtained  ?    What  is   its  physiological  effect  ? 
Can  one  give  up  the  use   of  opium  when  he  pleases?     What  is  the 
harmful  influence  of  chloral  hydrate  ?     Of  chloroform  ? 

at  which  he  studied  in  early  life.  He  had  been  attending  a  class  in  mathematics,  and 
the  professor  said  to  his  students  one  day:  "A  question  of  great  difficulty  has  been 
referred  to  me  by  a  banker— a  very  complicated  question  of  accounts,  which  they 
have  not  themselves  been  able  to  bring  to  a  satisfactory  issue,  and  they  have  asked 
my  assistance.  I  have  been  trying,  and  I  cannot  resolve  it.  I  have  covered  whole 
sheets  of  paper  with  calculations,  and  have  not  been  able  to  make  it  out.  Will  you 
try?'1  He  gave  it  to  them  as  a  sort  of  problem,  and  said  he  should  be  extremely 
obliged  to  any  one  who  would  bring  him  the  solution  by  a  certain  day.  This  gentle- 
man tried  it  over  and  over  again  ;  he  covered  many  slates  with  figures,  but  could 
not  succeed  in  resolving  it.  He  was  "  put  on  his  mettle,"  and  determined  to  achieve 
the  result.  But  he  went  to  bed  on  the  night  before  the  solution  was  to  be  given  in, 
without  having  succeeded.  In  the  morning,  when  he  went  to  his  desk,  he  found  the 
whole  problem  worked  out  in  his  own  hand.  He  was  perfectly  satisfied  that  it  was 
his  own  hand  ;  and  this  was  a  very  curious  part  of  it -that  the  result  was  correctly 
obtained  by  a  process  very  much  shorter  than  any  he  had  tried.  He  had  covered 
three  or  four  sheets  of  paper  in  his  attempts,  and  this  was  all  worked  out  upon  one 
page,  and  correctly  worked,  as  the  result  proved. 


262  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 


THE    SPECIAL    SENSES. 

211.  WHAT  is  a  sense?    Name  the  five  senses.     To  what  organ  do 
all  the  senses  minister?     If  the  nerve  leading  to  any  organ  of  sense  be 
cut,  what  would  be  the  effect?*     Sometimes  persons  lose  feeling  in  a 
limb,  but  retain  motion:  why  is  this?     What  is  the  sense  of  touch 
sometimes  called  ?      Describe   the    organ   of  touch.     What    are    the 
papillae?     Where  are  they  most  abundant?!     What  are  the  uses  of 
this  sense?     What  special  knowledge  do  we  obtain  by  it  ?     Why  do 
we  always  desire  to  handle  anything  curious? 

212.  Can  the  sense  of  touch  always  be  relied  upon?     Illustrate. 
What  is  the  tactus  eruditits?     Illustrate.     Tell  how  one  sense  can  take 
the  place  of  another.     Give  illustrations  of  the  delicacy  of  touch  pos- 
sessed by  the  blind. 

213.  Describe  the  sense  of  taste.     How  can  you  see  the  papillae  of 
taste  ? 

214.  What  causes  the  velvety  look  of  the  tongue  ?     Why  do  salt  and 
bitter  flavors   induce  vomiting?     Why  does   an   acid  "pucker"    the 
face?     What  substances  are  tasteless?     Illustrate.     Has  sulphur  any 
taste?    Chalk?     Sand?     What  is  the  use  of  this  sense ?     Does  it  not 
also  add  to  the  pleasures  of  life?     Why  are  the  acts  of  eating,  drink- 
ing, etc.,  thus  made  sources  of  happiness  ?    Describe  the  organ   of 
smell.     State  the  intimate  relation  which  exists  between  the  senses  of 
smell  and  taste.     Name  some  common  mistakes  which  occur  in  con- 
sequence. 

215.  Must  the  object  to  be  smelled  touch  the  nose?     What  is  the 
theory  of  smell  ?     How  do  you  account  for  the  statement  made  in  the 
note  concerning  musk  and  ambergris? 

216.  What  are  the  uses  of  this  sense  ?    Are  agreeable  odors  health- 
ful, and  disagreeable  ones  unhealthful  ?     Describe  the  organ  of  hear- 
ing.    Describe  the  external  ear.    What  is  the  tympanum  or  drum  of 
the  ear? 

*  Each  organ  is  adapted  to  receive  a  peculiar  kind  of  impression.  Hence  we 
cannot  smell  with  the  eyes  nor  see  with  the  nose.  So  that  if  the  nerve  communicat- 
ing between  the  brain  and  any  organ  be  destroyed,  that  means  of  knowledge  is 
cut  off. 

\  If  we  apply  the  points  of  a  compass  blunted  with  cork  to  different  parts  of 
the  body,  we  can  distinguish  the  two  points  at  one-twenty-fourth  of  an  inch  apart 
on  the  tongue,  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  on  the  lips,  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  on  the  tips 
of  the  fingers,  and  one-half  inch  on  the  great  toe ;  while,  if  they  are  one  inch  on  the 
cheek,  and  two  inches  on  the  back,  they  will  scarcely  produce  a  separate  sensation. 
— Huxley, 


THE  SPECIAL  SENSES.  263 

217.  Describe  the  middle  ear.    Name  the  bones  of  the  ear.    Describe 
their  structure.     Describe  the  internal  ear.     By  what  other  name  is  it 
known  ?     What  substances  float  in  the  liquid  which  fills  the  labyrinth? 
What  is  their  use  ?     Describe  the  fibers  of  Corti.     What  do  they  form  ? 
Use  of  this  microscopic  harp? 

218.  Give  the  theory  of  sound.     Where  is  the  sound,  in  the  external 
object  or  in  the  mind  ?     Can  there  be  any  sound,  then,  where  there  is 
no  mind  ?   What  advice  is  given  concerning  the  care  of  the  ear?    How 
can  insects  be  removed  ?    Which  sense  would  you  rather  lose,  hearing 
or  sight?     Does  not  a  blind  person  always  excite  more  sympathy  than 
a  deaf  one?     How  does  the  sight  assist  the  hearing?* 

219.  Describe  the   eye.     Name  the  three  coats  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed.    Is  it  a  perfect  sphere?     Ans.  The  cornea  projects  in  front,  and 
the  optic  nerve  at  the  back   sticks  out  like  a  handle,  while  the  ball 
itself  has  its  longest  diameter  from  side  to  side. 

220.  How  is  the  interior  divided?     Object  of  the  crystalline  lens? 
How  is  the  crystalline  lens  kept  in  place?     Describe  the  liquids  which 
fill  the  eye.     What  is  the  pupil  ?     Describe  the  eyelids.     Why  is  the 
inner  side  of  the  eyelid  so  sensitive?     What  is  the  cause  of  a  black 
eye  ?     Use  of  the  eyelashes  ? 

221.  Where  are  the  oil  glands  located?     What  is  their  use?    De- 
scribe the  lachrymal  gland.     The  lachrymal  lake.     What  causes  the 
overflow  in  old  age?     Explain  the  structure  of  the  retina.     Use  of  the 
rods  and  cones.     \Vhat  is  the  blind  spot?     Illustrate. 

222-6.  What  is  the  theory  of  sight?  Illustrate.  State  the  action 
of  the  crystalline  lens.  Its  power  of  adaptation.  Cause  of  near- 
sightedness.  How  remedied?  Cause  of  far  -  sighledness?  How 
remedied  ?  Do  children  ever  need  spectacles  ?  What  is  the 
cataract?  How  cured?  What  care  should  be  taken  of  the  eyes? 
Should  one  constantly  lean  forward  over  his  pook  or  work  ?  What 

*  In  hearing^  the  attention  is  more  or  less  characteristic.  If  we  wish  to  distin- 
guish a  distant  noise,  or  perceive  a  sound,  the  head  inclines  and  turns  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  present  the  external  ear  in  the  direction  of  the  sound,  at  the  same  time  the 
eyes  are  fixed  and  partially  closed.  The  movement  of  the  lips  of  his  interlocutor  is 
the  usual  means  by  which  the  deaf  man  supplies  the  want  of  hearing  ;  the  eyes  and 
the  entire  head,  from  its  position,  having  a  peculiar  and  painful  expression  of  atten- 
tion. In  looking  at  the  portrait  of  La  Condamine,  it  was  easily  recognized  as  that 
of  a  deaf  person.  Even  when  hearing  is  perfect,  the  eyes  act  sometimes  as 
auxiliaries  to  it.  In  order  to  understand  an  orator  perfectly,  it  seems  necessary  to 
see  him — the  gestures  and  the  expression  of  the  face  seeming  to  add  to  the  clearness 
of  the  words.  The  lesson  of  a  teacher  cannot  be  well  understood  if  any  obstacle  is 
interposed  between  him  and  the  eyes  of  the  listening  pupil.  So  that  if  a  pupil's  eyes 
wander,  we  know  that  he  is  not  attentive.—  Wonders  of  the  Human  Body. 


264  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 

special  care  should  near-sighted  children  take?  By  what  carelessness 
may  we  impair  our  sight?  Should  we  ever  read  or  write  at  twilight? 
Danger  of  reading  upon  tke  cars?  What  course  should  we  take  when 
objects  get  into  the  eye?  How  may  they  be  removed?  Are  "  eye- 
stones"  useful?  Why  we  should  never  use  eye-washes  except  upon 
the  advice  of  a  competent  physician?  What  care  should  be  taken 
with  regard  to  the  direction  of  the  light  when  we  are  at  work  ? 


CONCLUSION. 

STATE  some  of  the  benefits  of  health.  Contrast  it  with  sickness. 
How  were  diseases  formerly  supposed  to  be  caused  ?  What  remedies 
were  used  ?  What  does  modern  science  teach  us  to  be  the  nature 
of  disease?  Give  some  illustrations  showing  how  diseases  may  be 
prevented.  Is  it  probable  that  the  body  was  intended  to  give  out  in 
any  one  of  its  organs?  What  is  the  first  step  to  be  taken  in  the  cure 
of  a  disease?  What  should  be  the  object  of  medicine?  What  is  now 
the  chief  dependence  of  the  best  physicians?  What  do  you  think 
concerning  the  common  use  of  patent  nostrums  ?  Relate  the  story 
told  of  the  remedy  employed  by  the  African  medicine-man.  Ought 
we  not  to  use  the  greatest  care  in  the  selection  of  our  physician,  to 
secure  the  highest  medical  skill  and  cultivation? 


GLOSSARY. 


AB  DO' MEN  (abdo,  I  conceal).  The  largest  cavity  in  the  body,  in  which 
are  hidden  the  intestines,  stomach,  etc. 

AB  SORB'ENT  (ab,  from ;  sorbeo,  I  suck  up). 

AC'E  TAB'U  LUM  (acetum,  vinegar).  The  socket  for  holding  the  head  of 
the  thigh-bone,  shaped  like  an  ancient  vinegar  vessel. 

A  CET'IC  (acetum,  vinegar). 

AD' i  POSE.     Fatty. 

AL  BU'MEN  (albus,  white).     A  substance  resembling  the  white  of  egg. 

AL  BU'MI  NOUS  substances  contain  much  albumen. 

AL'I  ME  NT' A  RY.     Pertaining  to  food. 

AI/KA  LINE  (-1m)  substances  neutralize  acids. 

AN' MS  THET'IC.     A  substance  that  destroys  the  feeling  of  pain. 

A  OR'TA.     The  largest  artery  of  the  body. 

AP'O  PLEX  Y  (-plek-se).  A  disease  marked  by  loss  of  sensationjand  vol- 
untary motion. 

A'QUE  ous  (a'-kwe-us).     Watery. 

A  RACH'NOID  (arachne,  a  spider;  eidos,  form).  A  membrane  like  a 
spider's  web  covering  the  brain. 

AR'BOR  VI'T^B  means  "the  tree  of  life." 

AR'TER  Y  (aer,  air ;  tereo,  I  contain).  So  named  because  after  death  the 
arteries  contain  air  only,  and  hence  the  ^ancients  supposed  them  to  be  air- 
tubes  leading  through  the  body. 

AR  TIC'U  LATE  (articulo,  I  form  a  joint).     AR  TIC'U  LA  TIOX.     A  joint. 

As  PHYX'I  A  (-fix'-e-a).     Literally,  no-pulse  ;  apparent  death. 

As  SIM'I  LA'TION  is  the  process  of  changing  food  into  flesh,  etc. 
*     AT'LAS.     So  called  because,  as  in  ancient  fable  the  god  Atlas  supported 
the  globe  on  his  shoulders,  so  in  the  body  this  bone  bears  the  head. 

AU'DI  TO  RY  NERVE.     The  nerve  of  hearing. 

AU'RI  OLE  (auris,  ear)  of  the  heart.     So  named  from  its  shape. 

BI'CEPS.     A  muscle  with  two  heads,  or  origins. 

Bi  CUS'PID.     Tooth  with  two  points  ;  also  a  valve  of  the  heart. 

BRON'CHI  (-ki).     The  two  branches  of  the  wind-pipe. 

BRON'CHI  AL  TUBES.     Subdivisions  of  bronchi.  . 

BUR  SA  (a  purse).    Small  sac  containing  fluid  near  a  joint. 


266  GLOSSARY. 

CA  NINE'  (canis,  a  dog)  teeth  are  like  dogs'  teeth. 

CAP'IL  LA  RIES  (capilliLS,  a  hair).    A  system  of  tiny  blood-vessels. 

CAR' BON.     Pure  charcoal. 

CAR  BON'IC  ACID.     A  deadly  gas  given  off  by  the  lungs,  and  by  fires. 

CA  ROT' IDS  (karos,  lethargy).  Arteries  of  the  neck,  so  named  because 
the  ancients  supposed  them  to  be  the  seat  of  sleep. 

CAR'PUS.     The  wrist. 

CAR'TI  LAGE.     Gristle. 

CELL.     A  minute  sac,  usually  with  soft  walls  and  fluid  contents. 

CEL'LU  LAR  (cellula,  a  little  cell).     Full  of  cells. 

CER'E  BEL'LUM.     The  little  brain. 

CER'E  BRUM.     A  Latin  word  meaning  brain. 

CEP/ vi  CAL.     Relating  to  the  neck. 

CHLO'RAL  (klo)  HY'DRATE.     A  drug  used  to  induce  sleep. 

CHO'ROID.     The  second  coat  of  the  eye. 

CHYLE  (kile).     A  milky  juice  formed  in  digestion. 

CHYME  (kime).     From  chumos,  juice. 

CIR'CU  LA'TION.     The  course  of  the  blood  through  the  body. 

Ci  L' i  A  (the  plural  of  cilium,  an  eyelash).  Hair-like  projections  in  the  air- 
passages. 

CLAV'I  OLE  (klav-i-kl).     From  dams,  a  key. 

Co  AG'U  LA'TION.     A  clotting  of  blood. 

COC'CYX  (a  cuckoo).     A  bony  mass  below  the  sacrum. 

COCH'LE  A.    A  Latin  word  meaning  snail  shell.     See  Ear. 

COM'POUND.     A  substance  composed  of  two  or  more  elements. 

CON  TA'GI  ous  diseases  are  those  caught  by  contact,  the  breath,  etc. 

CON'TRAC  TIL'I  TY  (con,  together  ;  traho,  I  draw). 

CON'VO  LU'TION  (con,  together ;  rolvo,  I  roll). 

COR'NE  A  (cornu,  a  horn).     A  transparent,  horn-like  window  in  the  eye. 

COR' PUS  CLE  (kor'-pus-l).  From  a  Latin  word  meaning  a  little  body.  It 
is  applied  to  the  disks  of  the  blood. 

CRA'NI  AL.     Relating  to  the  skull. 

CRYS'TAL  LINE  (crystallum,  a  crystal). 

Cu  TA'NE  ous  (cutis,  skin).     Pertaining  to  the  skin. 

CU'TI  CLE  (ku'ti  kl).     From  a  Latin  word  meaning  little  skin. 

CU'TIS,  the  true  skin. 

DEN'TAL  (dens,  dentis,  a  tooth). 

DI'A  PHRAGM  (-fram).    The  muscle  dividing  the  abdomen  from  the  chest 

Di  AS'TO  LE  (diastello,  I  put  asunder).     Dilation  of  the  heart 

DIS'LO  CA'TION.     A  putting  out  of  joint 

DOR'SAL  (dorsum,  the  back). 

DUCT.     A  small  tube. 

Du  o  DK'NUM  (duodcni,  twelve  each). 


GLOSSARY.  267 

DU'RA  MA'TER  (durus,  hard  ;  mater,  mother).     The  outer  membrane  of 
the  brain. 

DYS  PEP' si  A  is  a  difficulty  of  digestion. 

E  LIM'I  NATE.     To  expel. 

EP'I  DEM'IC.     A  disease  affecting  a  great  number  of  persons  at  once. 
EP'I  DERM'IS.     The  cuticle. 

EP'I  GLOT'TIS  (epi,  upon  ;  glottis,  the  tongue).    The  lid  of  the  wind-pipe. 
EP'I  THE'LI  UM.     The  outer  surface  of  mucous  or  serous  membranes. 
.  Eu  STA'CHI  AN  (yu-sta'ki-an)  TUBE.     So  named  from  its  discoverer,  an 
Italian  physician. 

Ex  CRE'TION.     Waste  particles  thrown  off  by  the  excretory  organs. 
FER'MEN  TA'TION.     The  process  by  which  sugar  is  turned  into  alcohol. 
FI'BRIN  (fibra,  a  fiber). 
FIL'A  MENT  (filum,  a  thread). 
FUNC'TION.     See  Organ. 

GAN'GLI  ON  (gang'-gli-on).     From  ganglion,  a  knot ;  plu.  ganglia. 
GAS'TRIC  (gaster,  stomach). 

GLANDS  (glandz).     From  glans,  a  Latin  word  meaning  acorn.     Their  ob- 
ject is  to  secrete  in  their  cells  some  liquid  from  the  blood. 
GLOT'TIS.     The  opening  at  the  top  of  the  larynx. 

HU'ME  RUS.     The  arm-bone. 

HU'MOR.      A  Latin  word  meaning  moisture. 

HY'DRO  GEN.     The  lightest  gas  known,  and  one  of  the  elements  of  water. 

HY'GI  ENE.     From  a  Greek  word  meaning  health. 

HYP'O  GLOS'SAL.     Literally  "  under  the  tongue  ";  a  nerve  of  the  tongue. 

IN  CI'SOR  (incido,  I  cut)  teeth  are  cutting  teeth. 
IN'SPI  RA'TION  (in  and  spiro,  I  breathe  in). 
IN  TES'TINE  (-tin).     From  intus,  within. 

LACH'RY  MAL  (lachryma,  a  tear).     Pertaining  to  tears. 
LAC'TE  AL  (lac,  lad  is,  milk).     So  called  from  the  milky  look  of  the  chyle 
during  digestion. 

LA  CU'NA,  plu.  lacunae  (lakos,  a  hole).     Cavities  in  the  bone-structure. 

LAR'YNX  (lar-mx).     The  upper  part  of  the  wind-pipe. 

LIG'A  MENTS  (ligo,  I  bind)  tie  bones  together. 

LU'BRI  CATE.     To  oil  in  order  to  prevent  friction. 

LUM'BAR  (lunibus,  a  loin).     Pertaining  to  the  loins. 

LYMPH  (limf ).     From  lympha,  pure  water. 

LYM  PHAT'IC  (Hm-fat'-ik). 

MAS'TI  CA'TION.     The  act  of  chewing. 

ME  DUL'LA  OB  LON  GA'TA.     The  upper  part  of  the  spinal  cord. 


268  GLOSSARY. 

MEM'BRANE.     A  thin  skin,  or  tissue. 

MES'EN  TER  Y.  The  membrane  by  which  the  intestines  are  fastened  to 
the  spine. 

MET' A  CAR' PAL  (mela,  after  ;  karpos,  wrist). 

MET7  A  TAR'SAL  (meta,  after  ;  tarsos,  the  instep). 

MI'CRO  SCOPE  (mikros,  small ;  skopeo,  I  see). 

MO'LAR  (mola,  a  mill)  teeth  are  the  grinders. 

MOR'PHINE  (Morplicus,  the  Greek  god  of  sleep). 

Mo'xo  RY.     Giving  motion. 

Mu'cous  (-kus)  MEMBRANE.  A  thin  tissue,  or  skin,  covering  the  open 
cavities  of  the  body.  See  Serous. 

Mu'cus.     A  fluid  secreted  by  a  membrane  and  serving  to  lubricate  it 

MUS'CLE  (mus7 si).     A  bundle  of  fibers  covered  by  a  membrane. 

MY  O'PIA  (muo,  I  contract ;  o/;s,  the  eye). 

NAR  COT*  ic.     A  drug  producing  sleep. 

NA'SAL  (na'-zle).    From  nasus,  the  nose. 

NERVE  (neuron,  a  cord). 

NI'TRO  GEN  GAS  is  the  passive  element  of  the  air. 

Ni  TROG'E  NOUS.     Containing  nitrogen. 

Nu  TRI'TION.     The  process  by  which  the  body  is  nourished. 

(E  SOPH'A  GUS  (e-sof'-a-gus).     The  gullet ;  literally,  a  "food-carrier." 
OL  FAC'TO  RY.     Pertaining  to  the  smell. 

OR'GAN.     An  organ  is  a  portion  of  the  body  designed  for  .a  particular  use, 
which  is  called  its  function ;  thus  the  heart  circulates  the  blood. 
Os' SE  ous  (-us).     Bone-like. 
Os'si  FY  (ossa,  bones  ;  facio,  I  make). 
Ox  I  DA'TION.     The  process  of  combining  with  oxygen. 
OX'Y  GEN.     The  active  element  of  the  air. 

PAL' ATE  (palatum,  the  palate).     Roof  of  the  mouth. 

PAN'CRE  AS  (pas,  all  ;  kreas,  flesh).     An  organ  of  digestion. 

PA  PIL'LA,  plu.  papillae.     Tiny  cone-like  projections. 

PA  RAL'Y  sis.  A  disease  in  which  one  loses  sensation,  or  the  power  of 
motion,  or  both. 

PA  ROT' ID  (para,  near  ;  ous,  otos,  ear).     One  of  the  salivary  glands. 

PA  TEL'LA  (a  little  dish).     The  knee-pan. 

PEC'TO  RAL.     Pertaining  to  the  chest. 

PEP'SIN  (pepto,  I  digest).     The  chief  constituent  of  the  gastric  juice. 

PER'I  CAR'DI  TIM  (peri,  around  ;  kardia,  the  heart).  The  membrano 
wrapping  the  heart. 

PER'I  OS'TE  UM  0>crt',  arouiid  ;  ostcon,  bone).  The  membrane  around  the 
bone. 


GLOSSARY.  269 

PER' i  STAL'TIC  (peri,  round  ;  stallein,  to  arrange).  Applied  to  the 
worm-like  movement  of  the  alimentary  canal. 

PHAR'YNX  (far'inx).     From  pharugx,  the  throat. 

Pi' A  MA'TER  (tender  mother).     See  Brain. 

PIG'MENT.     A  paint. 

PLAS'MA  (plaz'-mah).     The  nutritious  fluid  of  the  blood. 

PLEU'RA  (plu'-rah).  From  pleura,  a  rib.  The  membrane  that  lines  the 
chest  and  wraps  the  lungs. 

PRES  BY  O'PI  A  (presbus,  old  ;  ops,  the  eye).  A  defect  in  the  eye  com- 
mon to  old  age. 

PROC'ESS.  A  projection.  Sometimes  it  retains  its  ordinary  meaning  of 
"operation." 

PY  LO'RUS  (a  gate).  The  doorway  through  which  the  food  passes  from 
the  stomach. 

PUL'MO  NA  RY  (pulmo,  the  lungs).     Pertaining  to  the  lungs. 

RA'DI  us.     A  Latin  word  meaning  the  spoke  of  a  wheel,  a  ray,  etc. 
RAM' i  FY.     To  spread  like  the  branches  of  a  tree. 
RES' PI  RA'TION  (re,  again  ;  spiro,  I  breathe).     Act  of  breathing. 
RET'I  NA  (rete,  a  net).    The  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve  in  the  eye. 

SA'CRUM  (sacred).  So  named,  it  is  said,  because  this  bone  of  the  pelvis 
was  anciently  offered  in  sacrifice. 

SA  LI'VA.  A  Latin  word  meaning  spittle  ;  the  fluid  secreted  by  the  sali- 
vary glands. 

SCAP'U  LA.     The  shoulder-blade. 

SCAV'EN  GER.     A  street-sweeper. 

SCLE  ROT'IC  (skle-rot'ic).     The  outer  coat  of  the  eye, 

SE  CRE'TION  (secretum,  to  separate). 

SED'EN  TA  RY  persons  are  those  who  sit  much. 

SEN'SO  RY  NERVES.     The  nerves  of  feeling. 

SE'ROUS  MEMBRANE.  A  thin  tissue,  or  skin,  covering  the  cavities  of  the 
body  that  are  not  open  to  the  external  air. 

SE'RUM.     The  thin  part  of  the  blood. 

SUB  CLA'VI  AN*.     Located  under  the  clavicle. 

SUB  LIN'GUAL  (sub,  under ;  lingua,  the  tongue).  The  salivary  gland 
located  under  the  tongue. 

SUB  MAX'IL  LA  RY  (sub,  under  ;  maxilla,  jaw-bone).  The  salivary  gland 
located  under  the  jaw. 

SYN  o'  vi  A  (sun,  with  ;  oon,  egg).     A  fluid  that  lubricates  the  joints. 

SYN  o'vi  AL  MEMBRANE  packs  the  joints. 

SYS'TO  LE  (sustello,  I  contract).     Contraction  of  the  heart. 


270  GLOSSARY. 

TEM'PO  RAL.  An  artery  on  the  temple  (temjms,  time),  so-called  because, 
as  is  said,  the  hair  whitens  first  at  that  point. 

TEN'DONS  (tendo,  I  stretch).  The  cords  conveying  motion  from  the 
muscle  to  the  bone. 

THO'RAX  (a  breast-plate).     The  cavity  containing  the  lungs,  etc. 

TIB'I  A.     The  shin-bone. 

TIS'SUE.  A  general  term  applied  to  the  textures  of  which  the  different 
organs  are  composed  ;  osseous  tissue  forms  bones. 

TKA'CHE  A  (tra'-ke-a).  Means  rough,  alluding  to  the  roughened  surface 
of  the  windpipe. 

TRI'CEPS.     A  muscle  with  three  heads,  or  origins. 

TRI  CUS'PID  (tres,  three  ;  cuspis,  point).     A  valve  of  the  heart. 

TYM'PA  NUM  (a  drum)  of  the  ear. 

VAS'CU  LAR  (vasculum,  little  vessel).     Full  of  small  blood-vessels 
VEN'TRI  CLE  (-kl).     A  cavity  of  the  heart. 

VER'TE  BRA,  plu.  vertebrae  (verto,  I  turn).  A  term  applied  to  each  one 
of  the  bones  of  the  spine. 

VIL/LUS  (villus,  tuft  of  hair),  plu.  villL 
ViT7!  ATE.     To  taint.     To  spoil. 
VIT'RE  ous  (vitrum,  glass).     Glassy. 
VO'MER  (plowshare).     A  bone  of  the  nose. 


INDEX. 


ABDOMEN 79 

Absorbing  power  of  skin 61 

Absorption  of  food *53 

Achilles,  Tendon  of 36 

Adam's  apple 73 

Air,  Composition  of 82 

"    Needof 82 

14    Action  of 82 

Air-cells 78 

Albinos Si 

Albumen I41 

Albuminous  bodies M1 

Alcohol 128,  163,  193 

"       asa  Narcotic 193 

"       Cause  of  Degeneration 131 

"       Effect  upon  Blood 132 

'»  "        "     Brain 193 

"  "       u     Circulation 128 

«•  "       "     Digestion 166 

"     Heat  of  body...  168 

"     Heart 130 

"  "       u     Kidneys 167 

"     Liver 167 

•'  *'        u     Lungs 133 

"  "        "      Membrane 132 

"  •'        u     Mental  Powers.  194 

"     .  "     Muscle 169 

"  "       "     Nervous  System  193 

"       "     Waste 169 

Alcoholism 171 

Alimentary  canal 146 

Amaeba 146 

Anatomy,  Definition  of Preface 

Ankle-joint 21 

Antidotes  for  poison Appendix 

Aorta 113 

Apoplexy Appendix 


PAGE 

Aqueous  humor 230 

Arachnoid  membrane 179 

Areolar  (connect!  ve)  tissue 55 

Arteries "2 

Arterial  blood na 

Articulation 76 

Asphyxia Appendix 

Assimilation 145 

Atlas 14 

Auditory  nerve 218 

Auricles  of  the  heart 109 

Axis 14 

BACK-BONE 13 

Ball-and-socket-joint 20 

Bathing 6a 

Beef. iSS 

Bicuspid  teeth 57 

Bicuspid  valve in 

Bile 151,  i54 

Black  hole  of  Calcutta 84 

Bleeding,  Checking  of 125 

Blood,  The 103 

Blood -crystals 103 

Blushing 124 

Boils  68 

Bones,  The 5 

Bow-legs 23 

Brain 179 

"     Exercise 190 

Bread 156 

Breast-bone 15 

Breathing 80 

Bronchi 78 

Bronchitis 95 

Burns Appendix 

Bursa 45 


272 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

CANAL,  Alimentary 146 

"       Semi-circular 217 

44        Haversian 9 

Canine  teeth 56 

Capillaries 115 

Carbonic  acid 83 

Carbonaceous  food 142 

Carpus 18 

Cartilage 10 

Casein 141 

Cataract 225 

Catarrh 127 

Cells  ofblood 104 

44      4l  brain 177 

"      "  lungs 78 

Cell 162 

Cerebellum 182 

Cerebrum 179 

Change  of  our  bodies.  120 

Cheese 156 

Chest 15 

Chilblain 68 

Chloral  hydrate 204 

Chloroform 205 

Chocolate 158 

Choking Appendix 

Choroid 219 

Chyle 152 

Chyme 150 

Ciliary  processes 220 

Cilia,  The 79 

Circulation 116 

Clavicle .•. 17 

Clothing 65 

Coagulation 107 

Coccyx 5 

Cochlea 217 

Coffee 157 

Cold,  A 126 

Cold  bath 63 

Collar-bone 17 

Complexion,  The 51 

Congestion 194 

Connective  tissue 55 

Consumption 95 


PAGE 

Cooking  of  food 158 

Cords,  Vocal 75 

Cornea 219 

Corn 156 

Corns 67 

Corpuscles io4 

Cortian  fibers 217 

Cosmetics 62 

Cotton 65 

Coughing 81 

Cranial  nerves 185 

Croup 96 

Crying 81 

Crystalline  lens 220 

44    Adjustment  of 224 

Curvature  of  the  spine 23 

Cuticle,  The  50 

Cutis,  The 49 

DECAY 120 

Degeneration  131 

Dentals,  The 77 

Dentine 58 

Dennis 49 

Diaphragm 79,80 

Diastole 108 

Diffusion  of  gases 85,153 

Digestion 145 

Digits 16 

Diphtheria 95 

Diseases,  etc 22,  42,  66,  94,  124, 162 

Disinfectants Appendix 

Drinking-water 256 

Dropsy 67 

Drowning 242 

Duodenum 151 

Dura  mater 179 

Dyspepsia 162 

EAR,  The 216 

Eating,  Regularity  in 160 

Eating,  Rapid 158 

Eggs 155,156 

Elbow-joint 18 

Enamel  of  teeth  58 


INDEX. 


273 


PAGE 

Epidermis  ...........................  49 

Epiglottis  .........................  73 

Epilepsy  ......................  Appendix 

Epithelium  .........................  152 

Erysipelas  ...........................  66 

Ether  ...............................  222 

Eustachian  tube  .....................  218 

Exercise,  Muscular  .......  ..........  39 

"         Brain  .....................  190 

Expiration  ..........................  80 

Eye,  The  ............................  219 

u     Adjustment  of  the  .........  _____  224 

"    Muscles  of  the  .................  33 

"    Things  in  the   .................  226 

Eyebrows  ...........................  220 

Eyelids  .............................  220 

Eye-stones  ..............  ...........  227 

Eye-wash  ..........................  227 

FACE,  Bones  of  .....................  n 

Face,  Expression  of  .................  190 

Far-sight   ..........................  224 

Fat-cells  .................  .  ..........  56 

Fats,  The  ...........................  142 

Felon  ................................  23 

Femur   .............................  20 

Fever  .........  ....................  241 

Fibrin  ..........................  104,  107 

Fibula  ..............................  21 

i 


Fish 


56 


Fits  .................................  241 

Flannel  .........  ....................  65 

Fontanelles,  The  ................  7 

Food,  Absorption  of  ........  ........  153 

"       Cooking  of  .............  .....  158 

"       Digestion  of  ..................  145 

"        Kinds  of  ......................  155 

"       Need  of  .........  ............  140 

"       Quantity  of  ..................  159 

Foot,  The  ...........................  21 

Frost-bite  .....................  Appendix 

Fruits  _____  ..........................  156 

Furs  ................................  66 

GALL-BLADDER  (cyst)  ............  79,  151 


PAGE 

Ganglion,  A 44 

A  nerve 17^ 

Gaping 81 

Gastric-juice 149,  151 

Gelatin 55 

Glands,  Gastric 149 

"       Lachrymal 221 

"       Lymphatic 123 

"       Parotid 146 

u      Perspiratory 60 

"      Sebaceous ,..     60 

"      Sweat 60 

Gtosso-pharyngeal  nerve 187 

Glottis 74 

Glycogen 154 

Gout,  The 43 

Gristle 10 

HABITS 190 

Haemoglobin 106 

Hair,  The 52 

Hair-dyes 62 

Hand,  The 18 

Haversian  canals  „ 

Head » 

Hearing 216 

Heart 107 

Heat,  Distribution  of 118 

"       Regulation  of. n8 

14      Production  of 119, 142 

Heredity 171 

Hiccough 81 

Hinge-joints  18 

Hip,  The 20 

Hot  bath 64 

Humerus 17 

Hygiene,  Definition  of Preface 

Hypoglossal  nerve 187 

INCISOR  teeth 56 

Indian  corn 156 

Inferior  vena  cava . .  109 

Inflammation 125 

In-growing  nails 67 

Innominata  . .  .16 


274 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Inspiration 80 

Internal  ear,  The 217 

Intestines,  The 151 

Involuntary  muscles 30 

Iris,  The 220 

Iron 143 

JOINTS : 10 

Juice,  Gastric 149,  151 

44      Intestinal 151 

44      Pancreatic 151 

KNEE-CAP,  The 36 

14     joint,The 36 

LABIALS,  The 77 

Labyrinth,  The 215 

Lachrymal  canals 221 

41         glands 221 

14         lake.  The 221 

Lacteals 123, 153 

Lacunae 9 

Lamb 155 

Larynx 73 

Laughing 81 

Lens,  Crystalline 220 

Levers 34 

Life  by  death 120 

Ligaments 10 

Light,  The 78 

Lime 143 

Linen 65 

Linguals 77 

Liver 79,i5i 

Locked-jaw 43 

Lumbago 44 

Lungs,  The 78 

44        Constriction  of  the 94 

Lymph,  The 123 

Lymphatic  system 123 

MARCH,  Story  of  Dr 212 

Marrow g 

Mastication 158 

Medulla  oblongata 185 

Membrane 5S 


PAGE 

Membrane,  Mucous 54 

14          Serous 107 

Metacarpal  bones 18 

Milk 156 

Milk-teeth 57 

Molars 57 

Mucous  membrane 54 

Mumps,  The 163 

Muscles  of  the  body 29 

"       "    "eye 33 

44        Contractility  of 29 

44       Number  of 29 

"       Tendonsof 32 

14       Voluntary 30 

Muscular  sense 39 

Mutton 155 

NAILS,  The <4 

41       In-growing 67 

Near-sight 224 

Nerves,  The 183 

44       Cranial 185 

il        Spinal 184 

44        of  motion 183 

44       ofsensation 183 

44       Sympathetic....^ 187 

Nervous  system 177 

Nitrogenous  food 141 

Nose,  The 214 

OCULI  motores,  The. 186 

Odors 215 

XEsophagus 147 

Oils,  The 142 

Olfactory  nerve 215 

Opium 202 

Optic  nerve 220 

Organs,  Definition  of 5 

Organs  of  circulation 103 

Organs  of  digestion 145 

44  respiration 73 

44       4t  the  voice 73 

Osmose 153 

Ossification , 7 

Otoliths 217 


INDEX. 


375 


PAGE 

Oxidation 105,  139 

Oxygen 82 

PALATE,  The 74 

Pancreas 151 

Pancreatic  juice 151 

Papillae 52 

Parotid  gland 146 

Patella.  The 21,  36 

Pelvis,  The 16 

Pepsin 149 

Pericardium 108 

Periosteum 8 

Peristaltic  movement 149 

Peritoneum 151 

Perspiration,  The 61 

Phalanges 21 

Pharynx 73 

Phosphorus 143 

Physiology,  Definition  of Preface 

Pia  mater 179 

Pigment 51,  220 

Plasma 104 

Pleura 78 

Pleurisy 95 

Pneumogastric  nerve 187 

Pneumonia 95 

Poisons 244 

Pork 155 

Portal  Vein 114,  136,  153 

Potatoes 156 

Processes 13,36 

Ptyalin 147 

Pulmonary  arteries 118 

veins 118 

Pulse 113 

Pupil 220 

Pylorus 149 

RADIUS 18 

Rapid  eating 158 

Reaction 63 

Reflex  action 188 

Respiration 73 

Retina...  ..  221 


Rheumatism 43 

Ribs,  The 15 

Rickets,  The 22 

Russian  bath,  The  64 

SACRUM,  The 16 

St.  Vitus's  Dance 43 

Saliva,  The 146 

Salivary  glands 146 

Salt 143 

Scapula 17 

Sclerotic  coat 219 

Scrofula 126 

Sea-bathing 64 

Sebaceous  glands 60 

Secretion,  Definition  of ...  ... ,  146 

Semi-lunar  valves 112 

Senses,  The 211 

'•        ofhearing 216 

44        "sight 219 

u         "smell.. 214 

"         "  taste 213 

"         "touch 2ii 

Serous  membrane    107 

Serum 107 

Shoulder-blade 17 

"        -joint 17 

Sick,  Care  of Appendix 

Sick-room " 

Sighing 81 

Sight,  Sense  of 219 

Sinew  (tendon) 32 

Skeleton,  The 5 

Skin,  The 49 

Skull,  The xx 

Sleep 19* 

"    by  medicine  191,204 

Small  intestine,  The 151 

Smell,  Sense  of 214 

Sneezing 81 

Snoring 81 

Sound,  Theory  of 218 

Speech 75 

Spectacles 225 

Soinal  column.  The it 


276 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Spinal  cord 183 

"     nerves 184 

Spine,  The 13 

Spleen 145 

Sprain 23 

Squinting 226 

Stammering 96 

Sternum 15 

Stomach 147 

Sugars,  The 142 

Sunlight 191 

Sunstroke 242 

Superior  vena  cava 117 

Sutures ia 

Swallowing,  Act  of 147 

Sweat 60 

tk      -glands 60 

Swimming  64 

Sympathetic  system 187 

Synovial  membrane 10 

Systole 108 

TACrUS  ERUDITUS 212 

Tartar 59 

Taste,  Sense  of 213 

Tea 157 

Tears,  The 220 

Teeth,  The  58 

"       Decay  of.- 59 

"        Preservation  of 59 

Temperature  of  the  body lao 

Tendons 32 

Theobromine 158 

Thigh 20 

Thoracic  duct iaa 

Thorax 15 

Throat 73 

Tibia 21 

Tight-lacing 94 

Tissues,  Definition  of. 10 

Tobacco 198 

Tongue,  The 213 

Tooth-ache,  The 241 

Touch,  Sense  of an 

Trachea ...    77 


Transfusion 106 

Tricuspid  valve  m 

Trifacial  nerve 186 

Tympanum 2i6 

Try  psin 15 1 

ULNA,  The 18 

Unconscious  action  of  the  brain 188 

Urea,  Uric  Acid 154 

VALVES  of  the  heart no 

"      "    "  veins 114 

Varicose  veins .-.  114 

Veins,  The 114 

Velocity  of  the  blood 118 

Vena  cava 117 

Ventilation 85 

Ventricles 109 

Vertebrae 13 

Villi  of  intestine 153 

Vitreous  humor 230 

Vocal  cords 75 

Vocalization 76 

Voice,  The 75 

Voluntary  muscles 30 

WALKING 38 

Warts 67 

Washing 6a 

Water 143.256 

Wens 68 

Windpipe 76 

Wisdom  teeth 58 

Wonders  of  the  brain 193 

<i         u    «    digestion 161 

it         «    u    neart ,21 

'•         "    u    muscles 43 

»«         "    "    respiration 93 

Woolen 65 

Worms 60 

Wounds 239 

Wrist-joint 18 

YAWNING...  81 


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